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Copyright,  1915 
The  American  Architect 
New  York 


THE  SECOND  CHURCH  IN  BOSTON,  UNITARIAN 

MESSRS.  CRAM  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


American  Churches 


VOLUME  I 


A Series  of  Authoritative  Articles 
on  Designing,  Planning,  Heating, 
Ventilating,  Lighting  and  General 
Equipment  of  Churches  as  Demonstrated 
by  the  Best  Practice  in  the  United  States 


WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  BY 

Ralph  Adams  Cram,  litt.d.,  f.a.i.a.,  p.r.g.s. 

Senior  Professor  of  Architecture,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
Honorary  Corresponding  Member,  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects 


To  Which  Is  Added  More  Than  200 
Full  Page  and  Text  Illustrations  of 
Recently  Constructed  American  Churches 


NEW  YORK 

THE  AMERICAN  ARCHITECT 

1915 


Among  Architects  Whose  Work  in 
Church  Design  is  Illustrated 
IN  THIS  Volume  are  the 
Following 


Henry  Vaughan 

Charles  C.  Haight 

Cram,  Goodhue  & Ferguson 

(Boston  Office) 

Allen  & Collens 

Cram  & Ferguson,  Boston 


Edward  Pearce  Casey 

John  William  Donohue 

Eckel  & Boschen 

Elmer  Grey 

William  C.  Hays 


Howells  & Stokes 

Myron  Hunt 

Edgar  A.  Matthews 

Maginnis,  Walsh  & Sullivan 

Nelson  & Van  Wagenen 


Julius  A.  Schweinfurth 

A.  Durant  Sneden 

James  E.  Ware  & Son 

Watson  & Huckel 


Among  Contributors  to  Text  in 
THIS  Volume  are  the 
Following 


Ralph  Adams  Cram,  Litt.D.,  F.A.I.A.,  F.R.G.S., 

Senior  Professor  of  Architecture,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology. Honorary  Corresponding  Member  Royal  Institute  of 
British  Architects 


William  H.  Goodyear,  M.A. 

Curator  of  the  Department  of  Fine  Arts,  Brooklyn  Institute  Museum 
Corresponding  Member  American  Institute  of  Architects,  etc.,  etc. 


The  Rev.  Robert  Ellis  Jones,  S.T.D. 

Canon,  Cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  New  York 


Professor  Wallace  C.  Sabine, 

Harvard  University 


D.  D.  Kimball, 

President  American  Society  Heating  and  Ventilating  Engineers. 
Member  New  York  State  Committee  on  Ventilation 


F.  A.  Pattison,  A.S.M.E.,  A.I.E.E. 

Illuminating  Engineer 


THE  SECOND  CHURCH  IN  BOSTON,  UNITARIAN 

MESSRS.  CRAM  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


PREFACE 


IF,  in  the  year  1885  or  thereabouts, 
one  had  ventured  to  predict  that  in 
twenty-five  years  the  architectural 
magazines  would  be  printing  special 
issues  devoted  wholly  to  contemporary 
ecclesiastical  architecture,  he  would  have 
been  considered  a fit  subject  de  lunatico 
inquirendo.  At  that  time  the  parlous 
state  of  architecture  was  nowhere  more 
acutely  manifest  than  in  church  building : 
the  Colonial  and  Jeffersonian  traditions 
were  both  gone  and  it  was  the  fashion 
then  to  embellish  the  interiors  of  the 
examples  of  the  latter  mode  with 
“aesthetic’’  stenciling  in  tertiary  colours 
and  sunflower  patterns,  and  to  paint 
those  of  the  former,  three  shades  of  olive 
green  without,  while  filling  their  windows 
with  preposterous  stained  glass.  The 
fine  Upjohn  impulse  was  still  operative 
through  such  sincere  and  able  practi- 
tioners as  Renwick,  Haight  and  Congdon, 
but  it  had  just  received  its  death  blow  at 
the  hands  of  Richardson  who,  in  Trinity 
and  the  “Brattle  Square”  churches  in 
Boston  had  promulgated  a new  style  as 
vigorous  and  compelling  as  it  was  alien 
and  evanescent. 

Generally  speaking,  the  Episcopal 
Church  still  adhered  to  the  Victorian 
Gothic  propaganda,  though  her  sudden 


advance  in  numbers,  wealth  and  power 
had  only  just  begun  and  her  activi- 
ties were  therefore  not  widespread.  The 
Protestant  denominations  also  were 
hardly  more  than  holding  their  own, 
but  whatever  they  did  was  pretty  gener- 
ally along  the  inadequate  lines  of  Rich- 
ardson’s immediate  successors,  while  the 
Roman  Church,  hardly  as  yet  touched  by 
the  flood  of  immigration  that  was  to 
raise  her  numerically  to  the  first  place, 
was  just  at  the  start  of  her  career  of 
building  multitudes  of  the  very  worst 
religious  structures  ever  conceived  by 
man. 

In  the  same  year,  1885,  evolutionary 
philosophy  and  the  “religion  of  science” 
were  at  their  climax:  everywhere  one 
heard  reports  that  historic  Christianity 
and  dogmatic  religion  were  doomed  and 
that  they  could  hardly  last  out  the  cen- 
tury. Altogether  the  future  of  ecclesi- 
astical architecture  seemed  black  indeed, 
here  in  America,  and  this  dubious  pros- 
pect was  only  intensified  as  soon  as  men 
began  coming  back  from  Paris  where  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  knew  nothing  of 
it  save  as  an  archseological  exercise,  and 
the  new  architectural  foundations  at 
various  technical  schools  and  colleges  fol- 
lowed suit. 


It  was  impossible  to  study  church  build- 
ing or  acquire  any  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  religious  expression  through  art, 
in  any  of  the  schools,  and  in  few  of  the 
architects’  offices.  In  England,  alone,  was 
there  any  vitality  in  the  art,  but  there, 
thanks  to  the  Catholic  revival,  it  was  in- 
tense : Scott,  Pierson,  Bodley,  Garner, 
with  scores  of  others,  and  with  Bentley, 
Sedding,  Paley,  Stokes,  Wilson  soon  to 
follow,  gave  a new  life  to  the  art,  and  for 
a generation  it  followed  a course  of  vigor- 
ous development  that  almost  rivalled  the 
unique  record  of  the  English  Middle 
Ages.  The  question  was:  would  it  come 
over-seas?  had  it  as  a foundation  a 
spiritual  vitality  in  the  Church  itself  that 
would  perpetuate  it  there  and,  crossing 
the  ocean,  do  battle  with  the  dominant 
secularism,  the  stolid  Protestantism,  the 
crescent  agnosticism  and,  victorious, 
bring  into  being  a new  era  and  a regen- 
erated art? 

There  does  not  seem  to  be  much  ques- 
tion as  to  the  answer.  Twenty-five  years 
have  seen  a sea-change  that  staggers  the 
understanding.  In  the  same  period 
America  has  developed  a domestic  archi- 
tecture that,  whatever  its  forms  of  ex- 
pression (and  they  are  legion)  is  strik- 
ing in  its  beauty  and  distinction:  a com- 
mercial architecture  that  is  logical  and 
distinguished,  a public  architecture  of 
splendid  culture,  refinement  and  nobility, 
but  not  one  of  these  really  quite  equals 
what  has  been  done  in  church  building. 
Wherever  you  go,  whatever  “household 
of  faith”  you  consider,  you  find  an  aston- 


ishingly high  level  of  excellence,  while 
the  ever  increasing  number  of  new 
churches  casts  an  humourous  light  on  the 
smug  predictions  of  an  imminent  end  of 
formal  Christianity. 

Naturally  enough,  the  Episcopal 
Church  has  taken  the  lead,  for  dog- 
matically, spiritually  and  historically  she 
was  bound  to  the  tradition  of  noble  art: 
close  on  her  heels  follows  now  Presby- 
terianism, demanding  and  getting  an  art 
as  rich  and  Catholic  as  that  of  Anglican- 
ism: now  at  last  Rome  follows  suit  and 
here  and  there  is  actually  breaking  away 
from  the  appalling  precedent  of  the  last 
decade  of  the  last  century.  Amongst  the 
other  denominations  there  are  not  a few 
sporadic  cases  of  a recovery  of  true  art, 
but  Congregationalism,  whether  Trini- 
tarian or  Unitarian,  is  not  very  active  to- 
day and  so  builds  comparatively  little, 
while  Methodists  and  Baptists  are  as  a 
whole  content  with  the  lower  standards 
of  a past  generation.  The  Swedenborgi- 
ans  almost  invariably  build  well,  in  spite 
of  their  small  numbers;  the  Christian 
Scientists  almost  invariably  ill  in  spite  of 
their  wealth : on  the  whole,  however,  one 
can  say  that  the  major  part  of  the  out- 
put, particularly  in  the  North  from  Maine 
to  Minnesota,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast 
as  well,  is  of  a degree  of  excellence, 
significance  and  distinction  that  is  inex- 
plicable except  on  the  assumption  that 
formal,  dogmatic  Christianity  has  taken 
on  a new  lease  of  life  that  is  so  spiritually 
efficient  and  so  crescent  in  its  nature  that 
it  has  forced  for  itself  a new  natural  ex- 


pression  that  almost  equals  that  of  the 
great  Middle  Ages. 

Stylistically  there  appear  to  be  three 
parallel  lines  of  development,  English 
Gothic,  Lombard  and  Colonial : all  are  be- 
ing treated  with  great  suppleness,  in- 
dividuality and  adaptability,  without 
archaeological  affectation,  but  also  with- 
out that  crass  individualism  that  destroys 
style  and  hampers  expression.  The  first 
is  followed  almost  exclusively  both  by  the 
Episcopal  Church  and  the  Presbyterians, 
the  second  by  the  Roman  Church,  the 
third  by  Congregationalists.  Notable  in- 
stances occur  frequently  of  Roman  Cath- 
olic Gothic  and  Presbyterian  Lombard, 
but  Colonial  meeting  houses,  other  than 
Congregational  or  Unitarian,  are  rare, 
while  modern  classic  seems  practically 
confined  to  the  Christian  Scientists,  with 
occasional  cases  in  the  Roman  Church. 

The  recovery  of  sound  Colonial  princi- 
ples during  the  last  decade  is  very  not- 
able : when  first  it  came  again  into  fashion 
it  was  shockingly  mishandled,  but  it  has 
been  subjected  to  the  most  careful  and  de- 
voted study;  almost  every  existing  ex- 
ample has  been  noted,  measured  and  re- 
corded, and  now  it  is  being  treated  with 
a refinement  and  penetration  that  have 
most  notable  results.  A generation  ago. 
Gothic  was  already  established  on  sound 
lines  in  America,  while  in  England  it  had 
actually  been  re-created  and  made  as  liv- 
ing and  organic  as  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
Since  then  the  development,  which  is  no 
less  than  marvelous,  has  been  in  degree 


rather  than  in  kind,  and  as  the  fire  seems 
to  be  dying  away  in  the  English  “Estab- 
lishment’’ it  is  being  taken  over  by  the 
Roman  Church  in  Great  Britain  and 
the  Episcopalians  and  Presbyterians  in 
America.  Lombard  is  an  entirely  new 
affair.  In  England  it  appeared  closely 
associated  with  Byzantine,  though  natur- 
ally enough  it  never  achieved  any  popu- 
larity as  it  was  recognized  as  alien  to 
British  blood,  temper  and  tradition.  In 
America  the  case  is  different  since  the 
nation  is  no  longer  even  predominantly 
Anglo-Saxon,  and  handled  as  it  has  been, 
with  striking  perception  and  delicacy,  it 
has  already  produced  many  works  of 
rather  unusual  beauty. 

Whoever  is  working,  and  whatever  the 
style,  we  find  now  a degree  of  apprecia- 
tion of  fundamentals,  a distrust  of  mere 
ornamental  details  as  sufficient  in  them- 
selves, a devotion  to  honest  construction, 
a general  grasp  of  the  problem  as  an 
organic  whole,  that  argue  well  for  an  im- 
mediate future  of  distinguished  accom- 
plishment. The  schools  still  very  largely 
disregard  the  whole  subject,  but  the  re- 
markable work  of  t|he  last  twenty-five 
years  has  been  produced  without  their  aid 
and  in  the  meantime  a great  number  of 
able  young  men  have  been  trained  in  the 
offices  of  the  producing  architects,  so 
there  need  be  no  fear  that  the  work  so 
well  begun  will  languish,  or  that  there 
will  be  any  falling  off  in  the  next  genera- 
tion from  the  high  standards  established 
by  the  last.  Ralph  Adams  Cram. 


REREDOS,  ST.  MARKS  CHURCH,  FRANKFORD,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA, 
MESSRS.  WATSON  & HUCKEL,  ARCHITECTS 


Modern  Church  Architecture  and 
Medieval  Refinements 

Bij  william  H.  GOODYEAR,  M.A. 

Hon.  Member  Society  of  Architects,  Rome;  Hon.  Member  of  Edinburgh  Architectural 
Association;  Hon.  Member  Royal  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  Milan;  Hon.  Member 
Royal  Academy  of  Venice;  Corresponding  Member  American  Institute  of  Architects. 


The  elementary  conditions  of  the 
ordinary  mason’s  art  naturally  in- 
volve the  use  of  rectangular  forms 
and,  consequently,  of  strictly  rec- 
tilinear and  strictly  perpendicular  con- 
struction. According  to  the  orthodox 
modern  practice  and  according  to  the 
orthodox  modern  theory  of  what  ought 
to  have  been  good  practice  in  other 
periods,  any  departure  from  the  rect- 
angle, the  straight  line,  or  the  true  per- 
pendicular, in  building,  is,  therefore, 
presumably  due  to  accident,  to  careless- 
ness, to  inefficiency,  or  to  natural  and 
inevitable  human  fallibility  where  minute 
measurements  are  concerned.  From  the 
same  point  of  view  equal  dimensions, 
equidistant  measurements  and  corre- 
sponding measurements,  for  correspond- 
ing and  repeated  features  of  any  indi- 
vidual part  of  any  individual  building, 
are  presumed  to  be  the  normal  rule.  In 
fact  any  other  practice  would  create  very 
serious  difficulties  for  the  draughtsmen 
of  a modern  architect’s  office,  as  they  are 
trained  at  present. 

Wherever  the  profession  of  building  is 
distinct  from  the  profession  of  architec- 
ture, and  wherever  the  former  profession 
simply  carries  out  what  the  latter  pro- 
fession has  drawn  out  for  it  on  paper,  the 
sciences  of  geometry  and  of  mathematics, 
as  applied  to  architecture,  appear  to  be 
entrenched  in  a fortress  from  which  it  is 
very  difficult  to  expel  them.  The  para- 
dox of  the  theory  of  architectural  refine- 
ments is  that  nothing  should  be  exactly 
where  it  is  presumed  to  be  and  that  the 
cultivated  eye  is  charmed  by  the  mystifi- 
cation resulting  from  unforeseen  and 


unrealized  displacements  which  set  at 
defiance  those  formulas  of  geometry  and 
mathematics  which  are,  notwithstanding, 
apparently  followed  and  employed.  This 
paradox  appears  to  be  so  close  to  non- 
sense or  to  involve  such  great  difficul- 
ties for  the  modern  architect,  if  it  is  not 
nonsense,  that  the  best  preface  to  our  sub- 
ject is  a series  of  quotations  from  several 
of  the  most  renowned  authorities  on  the 
architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

In  Viollet-le-Duc’s  Dictionary,  we  find, 
under  the  title  of  “Trait”  the  following 
passage  apropos  of  certain  distortions 
and  asymmetric  arrangements  in  the 
plan  of  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Denis: 

“These  refinements  (delicatesses)  appear 
strange  to  us  nowadays,  and  instead  of  search- 
ing out  their  meaning  or  verifying  their  effects 
we  prefer  to  attribute  these  ‘defects  of  plan- 
ning’ to  the  ignorance  of  these  ancient  artists, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  we  are  ready  to  marvel 
the  next  day,  at  no  less  important  irregulari- 
ties as  noticed  in  the  monuments  of  Greek  An- 
tiquity, irregularities  which  are  the  result  of 
optical  considerations  (besoin  de  I’ceil)  and  of 
a very  delicate  appreciation  of  perspective  ef- 
fect. . . . Such  a method  required,  it  is 

true,  a very  complete  knowledge  of  geometry, 
not  only  on  the  part  of  the  master  mason,  but 
also  on  the  part  of  the  workmen  . . . but 

it  will  probably  not  be  suggested  that  a knowl- 
edge which  was  pushed  so  far  by  the  master, 
and  which  was  so  easily  understood  by  his  as- 
sistants, has  ever  been  an  indication  of  igno- 
rance or  of  barbarism.” 

The  above  quotation  gains  additional 
significance  when  we  add  to  it  another 
from  the  pen  of  Auguste  Choisy  who  is 
known  to  have  contributed  much  mate- 
rial, in  his  earlier  years,  to  Viollet-le- 
Duc’s  Dictionary.  The  passage  which  fol- 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


lows  here  is  connected  with  a description 
of  certain  arrangements,  designed  for 
perspective  illusion  which  are  mentioned 
as  occurring  in  specified  churches: 

“These  irregularities  are  visibly  intentional. 
There  are  others  which  must  be  charged  to  the 
account  of  builders’  errors,  but  if  we  consider 
the  original  and  almost  subtle  spirit  of  the 
Gothic  architects  we  shall  be  persuaded  that 
there  was  design  more  frequently  than  negli- 


side  the  arrangements  made  on  the  right — this 
rather  narrow  rule — plays  a very  secondary 
role  in  the  Middle  Ages.  On  this  head,  as  on  so 
many  others,  the  point  of  view  of  the  Gothic 
builders  was  that  of  the  Greeks.  Asymmetry 
appears  acceptable  as  soon  as  an  evident  reason 
justifies  it.  If  an  edifice  is  placed  in  an  en- 
closure, the  plan  follows  that  of  the  enclosure. 
Two  spires  are  erected  successively,  architec- 
ture has  progressed  meantime  and  all  its  im- 
provements are  accepted  in  the  new  construc- 


FIG.  1. 

The  Temple  Church,  London,  looking  toward  the  choir.  This  view  shows  the  widening  refinement,  by  six 
plumb  lines.  All  the  piers  lean  out  uniformly,  to  the  same  amount, . with  inclinations  in  straight  lines  which  start 
from  the  tops  of  the  pedestals.  These  are  perpendicular.  The  inclinations  are  4 inches  to  a side,  in  a height  of 
15  feet  to  the  capitals,  including  the  perpendicular  pedestals.  On  the  extreme  right  and  left  of  the  picture  are 
seen  portions  of  the  pilasters  which  flank  the  opening  into  the  adjacent  circular  church,  of  earlier  period.  These 
are  perpendicular. 

Photographed  by  the  writer,  for  the  Brooklyn  Museum,  in  1914. 


gence.”* “Asymmetries — 

Architects  who  analyzed  with  this  refinement 
the  play  of  perspective!  must  have  had  a 
poor  opinion  of  those  symmetric  arrangements 
which  are  upset  by  perspective  and  which  the 
play  of  light  and  shade  is  always  complicating. 
The  law  of  symmetry,  as  we  now  understand  it, 
and  which  consists  in  reproducing  on  the  left 

* Several  paragraphs  about  the  mediaeval  use  of  the 
entasis  in  spires  and  the  consideration  of  optical  ef- 
fects in  the  profile  of  mouldings  are  omitted  here. 

fAs  shown  by  the  instances  of  perspective  illusion 
previously  cited. 


tion,  in  spite  of  the  resulting  contrast.  Gener- 
ally speaking  the  architects  of  the  Middle  Ages 
avoid  formal  regularity.  If  they  admit  a sym- 
metrical effect  in  the  total  result,  they  know 
how  to  avoid  monotony  by  details  which  are  in- 
finitely diversified.  Notre-Dame  has  on  its 
fagade  three  portals  erected  at  one  time;  from 
left  to  right  only  the  effects  of  mass  are  bal- 
anced, while  each  one  has  a character  of  its 
own.  These  differences  give  a charming  variety 
to  the  composition;  a feeling  of  sympathy  at- 
taches us  to  these  works  in  which  the  designer 
has  disdained  the  effect  of  a set  pattern,  in 


2 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


which  each  part  has  cost  a separate  study  and 
has  had  an  individual  treatment;  in  place  of 
symmetry  we  have  balance  and  the  unity  of 
impression  does  not  suffer,”* 

I shall  supplement  these  quotations  by 
another  from  a more  erratic  and  fre- 
quently misleading  critic,  viz.,  John  Rus- 
kin,  who  has,  however,  redeemed  many 
other  mistakes,  by  a marvellously  apt  and 
intelligent  discussion  of  the  subject  of 
mediaeval  architectural  asymmetry.  Mr. 
Ruskin  speaks  of 

“Accidental  carelessness  of  measurement  or 
of  execution  being  mingled  indistinguishably 
with  the  purposed  departures  from  symmetrical 
regularity  and  the  luxuriousness  of  perpetually 
variable  fancy,  . . . How  great,  how  fre- 

quent they  are,  and  how  brightly  the  severity 
of  architectural  law  is  relieved  by  their  grace 
and  suddenness,  has  not,  I think,  been  enough 
observed;  still  less  the  unequal  measurements 
of  even  important  features  professing  to  be  ab- 
solutely symmetrical.” 

After  some  pages  of  instances  he 
goes  on: 

“I  imagine  I have  given  instances  enough, 
though  I could  multiply  them  indefinitely,  to 
prove  that  these  variations  are  not  mere  blun- 
ders or  carelessness,  but  the  result  of  a fixed 
scorn,  if  not  dislike,  of  accuracy  in  measure- 
ments ; and,  in  most  cases,  I believe,  of  a deter- 
mined resolution  to  work  out  an  effective  sym- 
metry of  variations  as  subtle  as  those  of 
Nature.”t 

These  various  quotations 
point  to  a general  opinion  on 
the  part  of  distinguished  au- 
thorities, and  possibly  on  the 
part  of  a certain  portion  of 
the  cultivated  public,  that 
there  is  a difference  between 
modern  copies  of  mediaeval 
work  and  the  ancient  originals 
which  is  not  wholly  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  modern  church. 

The  existence  of  such  differ- 
ences has  been  materially  ac- 
cented by  a series  of  measure- 
ments and  of  photographically 
verified  observations  which  I 
have  carried  out  on  behalf 


of  the  Brooklyn  Museum.^  In  modern 
church  architecture  there  is  a certain 
smugness  of  mechanical  perfection  and 
of  formal  regularity  which  contrasts 
unfavorably  with  the  free-hand  design 
of  the  old  work.  The  object  of  this  chap- 
ter is,  therefore,  to  enquire  whether 
there  is  a possibility  of  the  practical  appli- 
cation to  modern  churches  of  any  or  some 
of  the  refinements  which  have  been 
recently  found  in  those  of  the  mediaeval 
period. 

It  is  evident  that  any  satisfactory  dis- 
cussion of  such  a subject  must  treat  the 
topic  of  refinements  as  part  of  a general 
and  larger  theme  in  which  other  virtues 
of  the  best  mediaeval  churches  are  in- 
cluded, and  in  which  the  sympathetic  rela- 
tion of  special  individual  refinements  to 
these  general  virtues  is  considered.  This 
again  calls  for  an  exposition  of  the  condi- 
tions under  which  these  virtues  were  de- 
veloped and  for  a consideration  of  the 
question  as  to  how  far  these  virtues  may 
be  revived  under  wholly  different  condi- 
tions. 

Thus,  in  considering  how  the  monoto- 
nous effects  of  formalism  may  be  avoided 
in  modern  churches  we  have  to  insist, 
first,  on  the  absence  in  modern  times  of 


JSee  the  American  Architect,  Aug.  4th,  Sept.  8th, 
Oct.  27th,  Dec.  1st,  1909;  Jan.  26th,  March  26th,  1910. 


*These  quotations  are  translations 
from  the  Histoire  de  V Architecture,  Vol. 
II,  pp.  410,  411,  412. 

'\Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture.  The 
Lamp  of  Life. 


PIG.  2.  CATHEDRAL  OP  PRATO.  SOUTH  WALL. 

Asymmetry  in  arcades.  Prom  left  to  right  the  arcade  widths  are  9.33, 
9.40,  10.22,  9.68  (door),  12.17,  12.11,  12.34.  8.85  (door),  9.46.  The  arcades 
rise  in  height  0.40  and  the  capitals  lower  in  height  0.35.  Measures  in  foot 
decimals. 

Brooklyn  Institute  Museum  Survey  Photograph. 


3 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


many  of  the  conditions  which  formerly 
counteracted  such  formalism.  For  in- 
stance, throughout  the  Early  Chris- 
tian and  Romanesque  periods  in  Italy, 
churches  were  frequently  built  with  many 
heterogeneous  materials  from  ancient 
ruins.  This  element  of  picturesque 
variety,  which  counts  for  a good  deal  in 
the  Pisa  Cathedral,  for  instance,  disap- 
peared in  Italy  about  the  13th  Century. 
It  certainly  could  not  be  invoked  now. 
Neither  could  many  other  unpremeditated 
irregularities  of  a different  character, 
which  give  much  charm  to  mediaeval 
building,  be  repro- 
duced by  a less 
ingenuous  and 
more  self-con- 
scious period  like 
our  own.  Again, 
throughout  the 
Romanesque  and 
Gothic  periods  it 
was  the  rule  that 
the  individual 
stone  carver  cre- 
ated his  own  de- 
signs in  the  matter 
of  capitals  and 
other  sculptured 
details.  Thus  the 
capitals  of  Rheims 
Cathedral  or  of 
the  Doge’s  Palace 
at  Venice  were 
produced  under 
conditions  which 
cannot  be  revived 
in  days  when  the 
original  designs  for  detail  are  prepared 
in  an  architect’s  office.  Even  if  these  de- 
signs be  individually  varied  and  the  repe- 
tition of  one  formula  be  avoided,  the  fact 
that  the  carver  is  working  from  a design 
which  he  did  not  originate,  deprives  his 
work  of  the  swing  of  independent  initia- 
tive and  of  the  impromptu  effectiveness 
of  the  old  work. 

The  conditions  which  Choisy  so  aptly 
describes  and  which  illustrate  the  medi- 
aeval willing  toleration  and  grateful 
acceptance  of  departures  from  formal 
symmetry  are  all  obviously  lacking  in 
modern  work.  To  dwell  on  this  phase  of 


the  matter  for  a moment  longer  we  might 
develop  it  by  remembering  how  many  in- 
teresting variations  of  detail  are  due  to 
the  length  of  time  during  which  a given 
cathedral  was  in  process  of  construction 
and  to  the  fact  that  the  evolution  of 
each  successive  mediaeval  style  involved 
changes  of  detail  according  to  the  se- 
quence of  time.  In  both  Romanesque  and 
Gothic  there  was  a gradual  movement 
from  the  simple  to  the  ornate  and  from 
the  ornate  to  the  complex.  Thus  the 
fashions  of  window  tracery,  for  instance, 
were  changing  within  periods  of  ten  or 

fifteen  years  and 
from  this  cause 
alone  there  might 
be  endless  variety 
in  the  window 
tracery  of  a single 
building. 

Reducing  these 
various  facts  to  a 
single  statement, 
they  all  converge 
to  the  free  initia- 
tive which  was  ex- 
ercised by  the  me- 
diaeval artisans. 
Various  refine- 
ments were  fre- 
quently practiced 
and  were  undoubt- 
edly of  great  bene- 
fit to  the  total  re- 
sult, but  this  re- 
sult starts  with  the 
natural  variations 
of  mediaeval  detail 
and  with  the  picturesque  effects  which 
naturally  followed  the  absence  of  any 
prejudice  in  favor  of  formal  symmetry. 
These  variations  were,  therefore,  the  re- 
sult of  the  social  and  economic  conditions 
which  distinguish  the  Middle  Age  from 
the  modern  time.  It  was  also  these  condi- 
tions which  produced  the  refinements  or 
which  especially  favored  their  develop- 
ment. The  training  of  the  individual 
mason  certainly  predisposed  him  to 
understand  and  adopt  the  instructions  as 
to  purposed  deviations  from  normal  regu- 
larity which  might  be  given  him  by 
the  master  mason.  This  is  not  the  case 


Fig.  3.  STA.  MARIA  NOVELLA,  FLORENCE. 

The  bays,  from  entrance  to  transept,  measure  as  follows : 
37.60,  38.70,  40.80,  35.35,  27.60,  27.80.  Quoted  as  an  instance 
of  perspective  illusion  by  Choisy,  Histoire  de  V Architecture, 
Vol.  II.,  p.  410.  Measures  in  foot  decimals. 

Brooklyn  Institute  Museum  Survey  Photograph. 


4 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


now.  On  the  contrary,  the  training  of  the 
modern  mason  is  of  a character  to  preju- 
dice him  against  any  departure  from  rigid 
geometrical  and  mathematical  precision. 

All  these  reflections  point  to  the  con- 
clusion that  any  modern  effort  to  revive 
such  architectural  refinements  as  were 
practiced  in  the  Middle  Ages  must  invert 
the  state  of  things  as  they  then  existed. 
We  must  begin  with  the  ultimate  result, 
without  going  through  the  in- 
termediate stages  of  evolution- 
ary process  and  we  must  begin 
with  the  architect  instead  of 
beginning  with  the  mason.  The 
simple  fact  that  many  old 
churches  and  cathedrals  have 
no  refinements  and  that,  gen- 
erally speaking,  the  churches 
which  have  them  in  the  most 
varied  combination  were  the 
more  costly,  the  more  impor- 
tant and  the  more  distin- 
guished (which  is  certainly 
true  of  Italy)  shows  that  the 
refinements  were  the  culmina- 
tion of  a general  condition  of 
excellence  of  which  the  main 
condition  was  simply  the  ab- 
sence of  methods  which  pro- 
duced formal  symmetry  and 
the  absence  of  any  theory  that 
such  symmetry  was  desirable. 

With  this  conservative  pref- 
ace we  may  point  out  an  ele- 
mentary practical  advantage 
to  be  obtained  in  modern  work 
by  a modern  study  of  this  sub- 
ject on  the  part  of  practicing 
architects.  In  so  far  as  such 
architects  desire  to  make  their 
work  more  interesting  and  so 
far  as  they  desire  to  be  free 
from  the  set  formulas  which 
are  sometimes  wrongly  sup- 
posed to  be  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  historic  styles,  it  is 
evident  that  the  knowledge  of 
what  was  consciously  done  in 
mediaeval  work  to  avoid  the 
appearance  of  monotonous 
formalism  may  be  of  great 
service  to  them.  Without  even 
striving  to  copy  any  mediaeval 
form  of  refinement  they  may 


still  work  for  results  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. 

It  follows  that  the  first  practical  value 
of  the  new  point  of  view  to  modern  archi- 
tects must  be  the  opportunity  to  study 
the  matter  for  themselves  and  to  develop 
from  that  study  such  independent  initia- 
tive as  their  own  temperament  may 
prompt,  inspired  by  the  confidence  that 
they  are  not  violating  tradition  in  depart- 


FIG.  4. 


The  south  side  of  the  nave  at  Chichester,  looking  toward  the  choir.  This 
view  shows  the  S-shaped  curve  in  plan  and  also  the  widening  refinement. 
The  maximum  defiection  of  the  concave  part  of  the  attenuated  S is  about  8 
inches.  The  optical  effect,  as  seen  at  the  triforium  string-course,  is  that  of  a 
rising  curve  in  elevation  near  the  entrance  (on  the  right),  where  the  curve  is 
convex  in  plan,  and  this  reverses  to  the  effect  of  a descending  curve  in  eleva- 
tion about  half  way  down  the  nave  where  the  curve  reverses  to  concave  in 
plan.  These  optical  effects  are  exactly  reversed  below  the  level  of  the  camera, 
as  seen  in  the  bases  of  the  piers. 

The  widening  refinement  is  shown  by  three  plumb-lines.  The  vaulting- 
shafts  appear  to  be  inclined  in  straight  lines,  from  the  pavement  up.  The 
maximum  outward  inclination  is  from  4 to  6 inches  to  a side  in  about  44 
feet  (to  the  vaulting-shaft  capitals),  but  the  inclination  disappears  at  the 
crossing  and  diminishes  near  the  west  entrance.  The  piers  engaged  in  the 
west  entrance  wall  are  also  inclined  2 inches  to  a side ; a remarkable  and 
rather  unusual  proof  of  constructive  purpose. 

Photographed  by  the  writer,  for  the  Brooklyn  Museum,  in  1914. 


5 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


ing  from  mathematical  and  geometrical 
symmetry  but  that  they  are  really  faith- 
ful to  it.  For  if  any  one  thing  strikes  the 
observer  in  this  subject  more  than  an- 


FIG.  5.  PLAN  OF  S.  PIETRO,  TOSCANELLA. 

A predetermined  asymmetric  plan.  The  two  sides  of  the 
projected  central  fagade  tally  in  measure  to  0.20.  The  meas- 
ures for  recession  of  the  fagade  wings  tally  within  0.10.  The 
recession  of  the  wings  is  0.80  (left)  and  0.70  (right).  The 
nave  widens  in  plan  5 feet  and  the  choir  narrows  in  plan 
4.70.  The  widths  of  the  aisles  on  opposite  sides  of  the  church 
tally  within  0.30  at  the  entrance  and  they  tally  within  0.40 
at  the  choir.  The  aisles  narrow  to  the  choir  1.70  (left)  and 
1.60  (right)  with  error  of  only  0.10.  The  third  bays  are  2 
feet  wider  than  the  first  or  second.  The  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth 
pairs  of  bays  are  uniformly  narrower  than  the  third.  The 
allowance  of  0.30  for  error  in  corresponding  spaces  is  only 
exceeded  in  one  instance  (at  the  entrance),  and  this  excess 
may  not  be  due  to  error.  The  choir  is  deflected  in  plan,  as 
regards  the  nave,  without  exterior  deflection,  and  this  defiec- 
tion  therefore  cannot  be  ascribed  to  irregularity  of  site  nor 
can  it  be  ascribed  to  symbolism,  as  the  church  has  no  cross 
form.  This  defiection  cannot  be  ascribed  to  errors  due  to 
screening  off  the  choir  before  building  the  nave,  because  the 
outer  walls  are  straight.  Moreover,  the  apse  is  decentered  2 
feet  to  the  right  when  the  choir  alone  is  considered  and  with- 
out reference  to  the  nave.  Measures  in  foot  decimals. 

Brooklyn  Institute  Museum  Survey. 


other  it  is  the  infinite  variety  of  modifi- 
cation which  appears  in  the  individual 
application  of  any  given  category  of  medi- 
Eeval  refinement. 

We  may  next  enquire  what  these  cate- 
gories are.  In  the  Italian  Romanesque, 
predetermined  variations  in  the  spacing 
of  exterior  arcading  are  quite  frequent, 
especially  where  Pisan  influence  is  found. 
Such  variations  are  also  common  in  the 
Venetian  palaces  which  show  Byzantine 
influence,  as  Mr.  Ruskin  long  since  demon- 
strated. The  cold  and  tedious  formalism 
of  modern  Romanesque  exterior  arcading 
is  very  obvious  and  may  be  instanced  by 
St.  Bartholomew’s  in  New  York  or  the 
Yale  College  Chapel  in  New  Haven. 

In  interior  constructive  arcading  the 
same  predetermined  variations  are  much 
more  frequently  found,  both  in  elevation 
and  in  plan.  They  are  occasionally  con- 
nected with  schemes  of  arrangement 
which  indicate  that  an  effect  of  perspec- 
tive illusion  in  the  direction  of  the  choir 
was  considered.  They  are  not  at  all  con- 
fined to  Pisan  Romanesque  but  they  also 
occur  generally  in  the  Italian  Roman- 
esque and  to  some  extent  in  the  Italian 
Gothic.  They  are  undoubtedly  found  to 
a considerable  extent  in  the  Romanesque 
of  Northern  Europe.  They  are  very 
uncommon  in  Northern  Gothic,  to  my 
observation. 

As  regards  plan,  the  twist  at  the  choir  is 
a well-known  feature  of  Northern  Gothic 
and  Romanesque.  It  has  been  widely  ex- 
plained, generally  by  sacristans,  as  hav- 
ing had  a symbolic  meaning,  but  this 
explanation  has  been  finally,  and  conclu- 
sively, shown  to  be  untenable  by  De 
Lasteyrie.*  The  effect  of  the  twist  is  to 
increase  perspective  effect,  to  give  a more 
picturesque  vista,  and,  generally  speak- 
ing, to  so  decenter  the  church  optically  as 
to  destroy  the  unpleasantly  formal  effects 
of  parallel  perspective  when  the  spectator 
is  in  the  middle  of  the  church.  The 
twisted  choir  plan  is  almost  unknown  in 

*La  Deviation  de  I’axe  des  eglises,  est  elle  sym- 
bolique?  Paris,  Librairie  C.  Klincksieck,  1905.  De 
Lasteyrie’s  conclusion  is  that  the  deflected  choirs  are 
due  to  the  lack  of  modern  surveying  instruments.  That 
this  conclusion  is  also  erroneous  may  be  easily  shown. 
I considered  this  subject  in  the  R.  I.  B.  A.  Journal, 
Vol.  XV,  No.  1,  pp.  26-30,  1907,  “A  Reply  to  Mr.  Bil- 
son.”  Much  evidence  has  also  been  obtained  since  the 
date  of  that  publication,  to  the  same  effect. 


6 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Italy,  as  regards  the  exterior  walls,  and 
is  only  found  in  churches  under  direct 
French  influence.  Italian  churches  occa- 
sionally show  an  interior  bend  in  plan,  of 
the  arcades  at  the  choir,  which  does  not 
include  the  exterior  walls.  The  S-shaped 
plan  is  found  in  notable  instances  like 
Chichester,  Notre-Dame,  Fiesole,  and  St. 
Ouen  at  Rouen.  It  is  also  found  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Lyons.  This  reversing  curve 
is  probably  the  most  beautiful  and  effec- 
tive of  all  asymmetric  plans.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  all  curves  or  bends  in 
plan  are  seen  by  the  eye  as  curves  or 
bends  in  elevation*  and  that  the  amount 
of  curve  changes  with  the  angle  of 
vision.  Thus  in  any  given  church  any 
curve  in  plan  produces  an  infinite  variety 
of  curves  in  elevation  from  any  one 

*See  my  Greek  Refinements,  note  4,  p.  75  (Yale  Uni- 
versity Press),  with  illustration  of  this  fact  by  a photo- 
graph of  the  interior  of  the  dome  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity Chapel.  Fig.  46,  p.  73. 


Showing  the  church  as  having  an  oblique  axis  which  is 
8.60  feet  off  the  normal  line  at  the  apse.  The  nave  widens 
1.05.  The  fourth  bays  are  the  widest  and  the  others  diminish 
in  either  direction  (diminution  toward  the  choir  of  about 
7 feet).  The  arches  lower  in  height  toward  the  choir,  start- 
ing from  those  at  the  entrance,  2.97  (left)  and  2.36  (right). 
Measures  in  foot  decimals. 

Brooklyn  Institute  Museum  Survey. 


given  and  definite  standpoint,  according 
to  the  height  to  which  the  eye  is  directed. 
Moreover,  the  optical  effect  of  any  given 
curve  in  plan,  when  seen  below  the  level 
of  the  eye,  is  opposed  to  the  effect  above 
the  level  of  the  eye.f  Thus,  the  convex 


FIG.  7.  S.  NICOLA,  BARI. 

The  nave,  photographed  by  the  Brooklyn  Museum  Survey 
on  the  normal  central  axis,  the  camera  being  at  right  angles 
to  the  faqade  wall ; showing  the  optical  effects  of  obliquities 
in  plan  to  be  effects  of  obliquity  in  elevation.  These  varying 
effects  are  complicated  by  the  variation  in  the  obliquity  of 
plan  in  the  transverse  arches,  which  are  shown  by  Fig.  6,  but 
these  transverse  arcades  are  absolutely  level.  Fig.  8 shows 
that  a directly  contrary  effect  is  produced  when  the  obliquity 
of  plan  is  below  the  level  of  the  eye. 

curve  in  plan  is  seen  by  the  eye,  when 
looking  down,  as  a concave  curve  in  eleva- 
tion ; but  above  the  eye  it  appears  to  be  a 
convex  curve  in  elevation.  Therefore  any 
curve  in  plan  produces  an  infinitely  varied 
effect.! 

The  same  philosophy  holds  of  obliqui- 
ties in  plan  which  are  constructed  in 
straight  lines.  They  are  always  trans- 
lated by  the  eye  into  obliquities  in  eleva- 
tion. ||  There  are  many  churches  in  Italy 

fSee  Greek  Refinements  as  just  quoted. 

JMr.  Wm.  L.  Wollett,  an  architect  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, believes  that  the  undulation  and  increased  variety 
of  lights  and  shadows  were  the  main  purpose  of  curva- 
ture in  plan  and  this  explanation  ought  not  to  be  over- 
looked. There  is  much  in  its  favor. 

II  See  “The  Architectural  Exhibition  at  the  Brooklyn 
Museum”  in  the  American  Architect,  Aug.  4,  1909. 
Note  especially  the  captions  of  the  illustrations  and 
notes  on  the  illustrations  at  the  close  of  the  article. 


7 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


PIG.  8.  S.  NICOLA,  BARI. 

Commercial  photograph,  showing  the  nave  from  the  facade  gallery,  and 
above  the  transverse  arcades.  This  view  proves  that  obliquites  in  plan  below 
the  level  of  the  eye  produce  an  exactly  opposite  effect  to  the  one  obtained 
when  the  obliquity  in  plan  is  above  the  level  of  the  eye.  Here  the  transverse 
arcades  appear  to  rise  in  elevation  toward  the  right ; whereas,  in  the  preceding 
view  of  the  same  obliquity  (Pig.  7),  they  appear  to  descend  in  elevation 
toward  the  right.  This  contrast  proves  that  the  spectator  on  the  floor  of  a 
church  nave  sees  two  opposite  effects  in  one  and  the  same  obliquity  of  plan — 
one  effect  in  elevation  below  the  level  of  the  eye  and  an  opposite  effect  in 
elevation  above  the  level  of  the  eye,  both  effects  being  produced  at  the  same 
time  and  from  the  same  standpoint.  This  view  also  shows  that  the  effect  of 
obliquity  in  elevation  increases  with  the  amount  of  pitch  in  the  angle  of  vision, 
and  that  the  effect  therefore  decreases  (on  the  same  plane)  with  the  increase 
of  distance  from  the  observer.  'Thus  the  top  of  the  second  transverse  arcade 
has  less  inclination  in  optical  effect  than  the  first,  although  reference  to  the 
plan  will  show  that  the  obliquity  in  plan  is  really  greater. 


with  oblique  ground  plans,  which  appear 
very  bizarre  when  laid  out  on  paper.  In 
actual  vision  these  obliquities  are  wholly 
unnoticed,  because  they  are  translated  by 
the  eye  into  obliquities  of  elevation  which 
would  be  normal  in  some  other  position 
of  the  spectator,  as  the  result  of  perspec- 
tive. The  effect  is  simply  to  decentre  the 
church,  optically  speaking,  and  to  deceive 
the  eye  as  to  the  standpoint  of  vision,  thus 
producing  an  effect  of  vibration  or  of 
optical  confusion.  An  obliquity  in  plan 
which  deviates  thirteen  feet  from  the  nor- 
mal line  is  wholly  invisible  in  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Cremona.* 

The  lines  of  interior  arcading  are  very 
frequently  out  of  parallel  in  mediaeval 
Italian  churches,  when  the  arcades  are 
laid  out  in  straight  lines,  and  this  is  espe- 
cially common  in  the  oblique  plans  (in 
which  the  axis  of  the  choir  is  not  normal 
to  the  main  central  entrance).  In  these 
oblique  plans  the  arcades  generally 
diverge  toward  the  choir.  Arrange- 
ments of  arcading  in  which  the  arcades 
converge  toward  the  choir  are  not  com- 

*Plan in  American  Architect  for  Aug.  4,  1909,  p.  42. 


mon,  but  they  occur,  and  in 
these  latter  cases  the  same 
arrangement  generally  holds 
for  the  outer  walls.  A dis- 
taste for  parallel  lines  ap- 
pears in  all  these  instances 
and  it  is  remarkable  what 
large  variations  in  measure- 
ment of  the  width  between 
arcades  or  between  walls,  at 
the  two  ends  of  a church,  are 
invisible,  even  after  the  facts 
have  been  measured  and  real- 
ized. 

Constructive  curves  and 
bends  in  elevation  appear  to 
be  rather  uncommon  in  medi- 
aeval work,  probably  because 
similar  but  much  more  varied 
results  were  more  easily  ob- 
tained by  deflections  in  plan. 
Gallery  bends  in  elevation 
are  found  in  Notre-Dame  and 
in  the  Pisa  Cathedral,  but 
curves  and  bends  in  plan  are 
much  more  frequent  in  the 
same  Cathedrals.  Curves  in 
elevation  are  found  in  the  Pisa  Cathe- 
dral and  in  St.  Mark’s  at  Venice. 

As  regards  vertical  lines  in  interiors  the 
Middle  Age  was  addicted  to  lines  of  curva- 
ture or  to  bends  which  have  the  effect  of 
curvature.  Wherever  vertical  curvature 
is  constructed  it  must  either  occur  as  a 
bulge  or  else  it  must  be  obtained  by  a 
slight  outward  slope.  This  latter  method 
was  the  one  adopted,  and  for  obvious 
reasons,  as  a bulging  vertical  curve  is 
clumsy  and  has  an  effect  of  weakness. 
The  same  considerations  which  led  the 
Greeks  to  avoid  a bulging  entasis  are  at 
stake.  The  vista  in  a church  nave  which 
employs  vertical  curvature  is  therefore 
very  aptly  to  be  compared  to  the  vista 
between  a pair  of  Greek  Doric  columns. 
The  slight  outward  spread  of  the  verticals 
is  also  frequently  found  to  occur  in  slop- 
ing lines  which  are  straight  from  the 
pavement  up.  This  is  doubtless  to  be  ex- 
plained by  a preference  for  a widening 
effect  toward  the  springing  of  the  vault- 
ing arches,  which  gives  an  effect  of  spa- 
ciousness to  the  upper  part  of  the  nave. 
Although  this  arrangement  counteracts 
the  converging  lines  of  vertical  perspect- 


8 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


ive,  it  also  throws  the  vanishing  point  to 
an  infinite  distance  and  thus  contributes 
to  an  effect  of  vertical  height.  The  slight 
widening  of  the  nave  in  the  upward  direc- 
tion is  occasionally  found  in  timber-roofed 
churches  in  England,  but  to  my  knowl- 
edge it  does  not  so  occur  elsewhere. 
Such  occasional  practice  in  England  must 
be  due  to  a tradition  borrowed  from  the 
Continent  and  there  only  applied  to 
vaulted  churches.  The  outward  widen- 


ing effect  certainly  originated  in  vaulted 
churches  and  is  most  easily  understood  by 
reference  to  them.  The  study  of  this  ef- 
fect will  fail  if  it  considers  the  verticals 
without  reference  to  the  arch  which  they 
support.  The  transition  from  the  vertical 
to  the  arch  which  it  supports  is  much 
more  beautiful  when  this  attenuated 
horseshoe  form  is  employed.  At  all 
events,  it  is  evident  that  this  was  the 
opinion  of  the  mediaeval  builder. 

The  Italian  mediaeval 
churches  very  generally  con- 
struct the  pavement  with  an 
upward  slope  toward  the 
choir  and  this  practice  also 
occurs  in  Northern  Europe, 
for  instance,  at  Chartres, 
where  the  pavement  rises 
three  feet  seven  inches  be- 
tween the  v/est  wall  and  the 
choir.  The  great  difficulty 
of  verifying  the  existence  of 
such  slopes  by  the  eye,  with- 
out levelling,  when  one  is 
looking  for  them  or  querying 
their  existence,  proves  that 
they  must  have  a consid- 
erable illusive  effect  in  in- 
creasing effects  of  distance 
in  the  direction  of  the  choir 
and  this  may,  very  prob- 
ably, have  been  the  motive 
of  this  practice.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  conceive  how  this 
method  can  be  of  much  serv- 
ice in  churches  which  em- 
ploy pews.  Generally  speak- 
ing, pews  are  very  fatal  to 
the  effect  of  a church. 

Perhaps  the  most  daring 
and  remarkable  development 
of  mediseval  refinement  was 
the  construction  of  facades 
with  a forward  inclination. 
The  known  instances  are  not 
numerous  and  they  occur 
only  in  churches  of  the  first 
rank.  The  Cathedrals  of 
Peterborough,  Paris,  Fer- 
rara, and  Pisa,  the  churches 
of  St.  Mark’s  at  Venice,  of 
San  Michele  at  Pavia  and  of 
San  Ambrogio  at  Genoa 
(Renaissance  period)  are  the 


FIG.  9. 

The  nave  at  Lichfield,  looking  toward  the  choir.  This  view  shows  the 
bend  in  plan  of  the  choir  toward  the  north,  as  seen  in  the  central  rib  of  the 
vaulting;  and  the  widening  refinement.  The  vaulting-shafts  incline  from  the 
pavement  up,  with  a bend  near  the  arcade  caps,  which  gives  an  effect  of 
vertical  curvature.  The  maximum  inclination  at  the  center  of  the  nave  is 
about  12  inches  to  a side,  up  to  the  top  of  the  clerestory  windows  (about  46 
feet),  or  about  10  inches  up  to  the  springing  of  the  vaulting  (about  38  feet). 
The  inclinations  diminish  from  the  center  and  disappear  in  the  crossing  piers 
and  in  the  piers  next  the  west  entrance.  Thus,  at  the  height  of  the  clerestory 
there  are  resulting  curves  in  plan,  concave  to  the  nave,  which  are  practically 
invisible  from  the  fioor  of  the  nave,  but  which  are  shown  by  Fig.  10.  There 
appears  to  be  no  widening  in  the  choir,  which  is  of  a later  period  (late  14th 
century ) , 

Photographed  by  the  writer,  for  the  Brooklyn  Museum,  in  1914. 


9 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


FIG.  10.  LICHFIELD  CATHEDRAL. 

Curve  in  plan  of  the  roof  parapet,  north  side;  about  15 
inches  deflection  in  a length  of  about  112  feet.  This  obvi- 
ously constructive  curve,  which  also  appears  on  the  south 
side,  is  connected  with  the  construction  of  the  interior  widen- 
ing reflnement.  See  Fig.  9.  Brooklyn  Museum  photograph,  1914. 


» 


instances  best  known  to  me.  There  are 
some  doubtful  points  about  the  fagade  of 
San  Ambrogio  at  Milan,  but  I believe  it  to 
be  a constructive  case.  A recent  examina- 
tion of  Peterborough  has  convinced  me 
that  it  is  a good  constructive  case. 
The  fagades  of  Ferrara  and  San  Am- 
brogio at  Genoa  are  the  only  ones 
among  those  quoted  which  lean  forward 
in  a straight  line.  The  second  story 
of  St.  Mark’s  facade  is  perpendicular  and 
the  lower  story  bends  toward  the  perpen- 
dicular. The  fagades  of  San  Michele  at 
Pavia  and  San  Ambrogio  at  Milan  both 
bend  toward  the  perpendicular.  The 
upper  stories  of  the  cathedral  fagades  of 
Paris  and  of  Pisa  are  perpendicular  and 
the  intervening  stories  diminish  the  in- 
clination, as  compared  with  the  lower 
stories.  The  upper  story  of  the  Peter- 
borough fagade  is  nearly  perpendicular. 
These  facts  are  quoted  to  suggest  that 
much  care  was  taken  in  such  cases  to 
avoid  accidental  increase  of  inclination 
and  consequent  downfall.  A close  study, 
for  instance,  of  the  fagades  at  Paris  and 
Pisa  shows  that  they  are  absolutely  stable 
from  an  engineering  point  of  view.  This 
also  appears  from  the  absence  of  move- 
ment during  so  many  centuries. 

It  is  probable  that  a wider  knowledge 
as  to  the  use  of  refinements  in  mediasval 
building  will  promote  experiments  in  the 
same  direction  in  modern  churches. 
They  will  undoubtedly  increase  the  ex- 
pense of  construction  very  considerably 
and  it  therefore  appears  that  some  edu- 
cation of  the  cultivated  public  as  to  the 
advantage  of  such  refinements  must  pre- 
cede their  use  to  any  great  extent  by 
modern  architects. 


10 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


UNITARIAN  MEETING  HOUSE,  SUMMIT,  N.  J. 

MR.  JOY  WHEELER  DOW,  ARCHITECT. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  MEETING-HOUSE 

WITH  PARTICULAR  REFERENCE  TO  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  FIRST  CHURCH  OF 
DANBURY,  CONN.  (PLATES  21-31.)  MESSRS.  HOWELLS  & STOKES,  ARCHITECTS 


Before  the  fire  of  London  in  1666, 
Sir  Christopher  Wren  had  already, 
at  the  command  of  King  Charles 
II,  drawn  plans  for  remodeling  St. 
Paul’s  Cathedral.  In  the  plan  he  showed 
a vast  church  without  aisles  or  transepts, 
merely  a great  meeting-house  of  worship, 
as  the  most  expressive  of  the  preaching, 
non-ritualistic,  Protestant  faith.  These 
plans,  although  approved  of  by  the  King, 
were  thought  to  depart  too  radically  from 
the  traditional  forms,  and  were  disap- 
proved by  the  clergy  in  power,  to  the  dis- 
gust of  Wren,  who  did  nothing  further. 

Then  came  the  fire,  destroying  much  of 
London,  including  fifty  churches.  Again 
Sir  Christopher  drew  plans  for  St.  Paul’s, 
but  he  got  with  them  this  time  express 
directions  from  the  King  that  he  was  to 
vary  them  as  he  saw  fit  without  reference 


to  the  clergy,  and  from  these  plans  grew 
the  church  completed  in  1710.  He  went 
forward  with  a vast  number  of  other 
churches,  which  he  treated  mostly  in  what 
he  called  “a  good  Roman  style,”  as  dis- 
tinguished from  “The  Gothlike  rudeness,” 
and  these  many  classic  spires  from  the 
prototypes  of  our  more  lively  New  Eng- 
land spires  executed  a century  or  more 
later. 

The  English  spires  were  stone  and  their 
superpositions  and  orders  had  to  be 
translated  here  in  wood,  for  we  had 
neither  the  money  nor  facilities  to  work 
in  stone.  Out  of  this  fact  grew  the  atten- 
uation and  the  consequent  grace  and 
lightness  of  our  New  England  church 
spires.  Except  in  the  verticalities  of  the 
Gothic  Cathedrals  nowhere  in  the  world 
can  be  found  a more  aspiring  form  than 


11 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


UNITARIAN  MEETING  HOUSE,  SUMMIT,  N.  J. 

MR.  JOY  WHEELER  DOW,  ARCHITECT. 


one  of  these  steeples  arising  from  our 
elms  and  sparkling  against  our  sky. 

In  the  early  days  it  was  customary  for 
the  Colonists  to  build  within  half  a mile 
of  the  meeting-house;  around  it  stood 
grouped  the  stock,  the  jail  and  the  gal- 
lows. This  meeting-house  was  the  spirit- 
ual correctional,  but  was  also  open  for  all 
forms  of  protection  of  man  and  beast 
from  danger.  Later  the  settlements 
spread  out  and  the  meeting-house  became 
‘‘as  a light  upon  a hill,”  a beacon  to  warn 
off  hostile  approach.  The  earlier  meeting- 
houses were  mostly  square  in  form  and  of 
box-like  appearance,  but  as  the  Colonies 
prospered  and  money  accumulated,  more 
imposing  buildings  rose,  for  the  greater 
part  apparently,  where  the  old  ones  were 
burned  down,  and  the  architectural  de- 
velopment of  the  church  and  steeple  kept 
pace. 

Such  architects  as  Ascher  Benjamin, 
Bulfinch,  Ithiel  Town  and  others  turned 
to  the  engraved  plates  in  the  large  works 
issued  just  before  this  time  on  English 
and  French  architecture,  mostly  the  for- 


UNITARIAN MEETING  HOUSE,  SUMMIT,  N.  J. 

MR.  JOY  WHEELER  DOW,  ARCHITECT. 

est,  biggest  and  yallowest’  in  the  coun- 
try.” 

Thus  the  development  went  forward,  of 
what  is  now  recognized  and  classified  as 
an  architectural  style  and  called,  for  want 
of  a better  name,  “Colonial.”  The  finer 


mer,  and  translated  the  designs  there 
found  into  wood,  often  with  remarkable 
delicacy  and  feeling. 

At  this  time  the  meeting-houses  in 
many  communities  had  become  handsome, 
well-appointed  buildings  with  carved 
moldings  and  capitals  inside  and  an  ex- 
terior which  must  often  have  gone  beyond 
the  interior  in  decoration  if  we  can  judge 
from  Mrs.  Bacon’s  quaint  quotation  from 
the  archives  of  a certain  meeting-house, 
which  is  recorded  as  treated  thus:  “The 
body  of  the  church  was  painted  a bright 
orange;  the  doors  and  bottom  part  a 
warm  chocolate  colour;  the  window  jets 
and  corner  boards  and  weather  boards 
white.  This  church  possessed  an  ‘elec- 
larick  rod’  and  boasted  it  was  the  ‘new- 


12 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  OLD  LYME,  CONN. 

MR.  ERNEST  GREEN,  ARCHITECT. 


13 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


examples  can  naturally  be  found  in  the 
more  important  towns,  where  culture  and 
intelligence  made  people  appreciative. 
The  style  was  perfected  about  1830  in  the 
large  towns,  and  after  that  began  to  de- 
cay, so  that  the  later  examples,  except 
certain  cases  of  the  Greek  revival,  are 
often  not  worth  notice.  Many  of  the 
finest  of  the  recorded  examples  have  been 
burned  or  destroyed  in  the  last  genera- 
tion, and  this  is  particularly  called  to 
mind  by  the  sad  loss  of  the  beautiful 
church  at  Lyme,  Conn.,  last  year;  but 
many  remain  and  many  New  England 
towns  far  from  railroad  stations  to-day 
will  richly  repay  a carriage  or  automobile 
pilgrimage  to  see  its  delicate  steeple  ris- 
ing amid  its  equally  delicate  and  charac- 
teristic elms. 

And  this  brings  us  to  the  subject  of  our 
illustrations — the  meeting-house  of  the 
First  Church  of  Danbury,  Conn.  (See 
plates  21  to  31.) 


This  church  is  new  in  itself,  but  old  in 
its  antecedents,  both  in  the  dignified  his- 
tory of  the  Church  Society  which  it  rep- 
resents and  the  architectural  style  which 
it  embodies.  New  and  original  as  a whole, 
and  built  to  correspond  exactly  to  the 
needs  of  the  congregation  which  it  is  to 
house,  this  church,  nevertheless,  is  purely 
archeological  in  that  only  motifs  and 
parts  have  been  used  in  its  make-up  for 
which  a prototype  could  be  found  in  the 
best  Colonial  architecture.  Not  an  exact 
prototype,  perhaps,  but  a sentimental 
prototype  at  least  in  the  manner  of  treat- 
ing column  and  cornice  and  proportion. 

The  steeple  has  been  spoken  of  as  of  the 
Bulfinch  type,  perhaps  because  Bulfinch’s 
best-known  church  that  is  still  standing 
at  Lancaster,  Mass.,  has  a tower  which 
ends  in  a domical  form.  In  his  church, 
however,  the  tower  is  very  short  and 
thick  and  the  dome  large.  In  the  Dan- 
bury Church  we  have  the  spire  of  the 


14 


FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  OLD  LYME,  CONN. 

MR.  ERNEST  GREEN,  ARCHITECT. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  OLD  LYME,  CONN. 

MR.  ERNEST  GREEN,  ARCHITECT. 


most  developed  type.  It  refers  itself  most 
closely,  perhaps,  to  the  spire  of  the  United 
Church  of  New  Haven,  designed  by  Ithiel 
Town,  except  that  the  Danbury  spire  is, 
upon  comparison,  more  lofty  and  elon- 
gated than  his. 

The  portico  shows  free-standing  col- 
umns, as  in  the  church  at  Guilford,  Conn., 
although  at  Guilford  there  are  only  four 
columns,  while  at  Danbury  there  are 
eight  grouped  in  pairs.  The  grouping  of 
columns  in  this  way  is,  perhaps,  not  quite 
archeological,  but  its  effect  in  this  case, 
combined  with  the  grouping  of  the  urns 
on  the  balustrade,  gives  a stateliness 
which  the  more  naif  arrangement  of  the 
early  churches  possibly  missed. 

Upon  entering  the  vestibule,  through 
one  of  the  three  main  doors,  one  finds 
that  the  interior  is  marked  by  the  same 
distinguishing  simplicity  and  faithful 
adherence  to  tradition.  The  doors  to  the 
body  of  the  church  are  mahogany,  and 


these,  with  the  star  rail  at  either  end  of 
the  vestibule,  contrast  charmingly  with 
the  dead  white  of  the  woodwork  and  plas- 
ter walls.  An  accompanying  illustration 
from  this  portion  of  the  church  shows 
how  well  the  lighting  fixtures  harmonize 
with  the  old-time  flavor  of  dignity  and 
restraint. 

The  first  glance  into  the  main  body  of 
the  meeting-house  reveals  a striking  com- 
bination of  white  plaster  and  woodwork, 
relieved  again  by  the  mahogany  pulpit 
and  rail,  and  by  the  backs  and  ends  of  the 
pews.  Throughout  the  large  auditorium, 
which  with  the  gallery  seats  nearly  nine 
hundred  people,  there  is  a wealth  of  deli- 
cate plaster  modeling  and  wood  carving. 
This  is  particularly  marked  in  the  organ 
and  in  the  panels  in  the  sides  of  the  front, 
designed  in  a delicate  open-work  pattern 
to  permit  transmission  of  sound  from  the 
end  pipes.  It  is  in  the  organ  particularly 
that  the  architects  have  had  the  fullest 


15 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


OLD  MEETING  HOUSE,  WEST  ROXBURY,  MASS. 


opportunity  for  carrying  forward  into 
new  fields  the  spirit  of  the  Colonist 
church  builders.  There  were,  of  course, 
no  precedents,  since  our  Puritan  fore- 
fathers would  have  looked  upon  such  a 
luxuriously  appointed  instrument  as  a 
manifestation  of  rank  papistry.  The  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  tracery  panels  is  re- 
peated in  the  upper  part  of  the  rear  wall, 
back  of  which  is  located  the  echo  organ. 

Windows  below  and  above  the  gallery 
serve  to  illuminate  with  great  brilliancy 


this  white  interior.  These  windows  are 
purely  archeological,  even  to  the  extent 
of  having  imperfect,  wavy  glass  for  the 
small  panes. 

Instead  of  filling  the  gallery  entirely 
with  pews,  a single  line  of  these  extends 
around  the  three  sides  of  the  church,  just 
below  the  outside  aisle,  and  in  front  of 
this  line  the  gallery  is  divided  into  boxes 
furnished  with  Windsor  chairs,  harmon- 
izing in  color  with  the  mahogany  trim- 
mings. 


16 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


One  touch  of  modernity  is  the  use  of 
cast-iron  colonettes  to  support  the  gallery 
of  the  interior,  thereby  getting  more  slen- 
der supports,  which  interrupt  the  eye  less 
than  would  be  possible  in  wood.  Other- 
wise, the  interior  is  as  carefully  studied 
archeologically  as  the  outside.  In  fact, 
the  gallery  is  inspired  from  the  gallery 
of  the  old  West  Church  in  Boston,  Mass., 
designed  by  Ascher  Benjamin. 

Another  modern  touch  and  one  which 
we  trust  will  tend  to  longevity  of  this 
church,  is  that  it  has  a modern  heating 
apparatus,  instead  of  depending,  as  our 
forefathers  did,  upon  large  stoves  set  on 
a wooden  floor.  There  are  no  radiators 


in  sight,  of  course,  to  mar  the  simplicity 
of  the  interior,  for  these  have  been  placed 
in  the  space  under  the  broad  window  sills. 
The  latter  are  flat,  with  a white-painted 
iron  grating  let  into  them  flush  with  the 
surface. 

There  is  the  inevitable  red  carpet  run- 
ner for  the  aisles  and  the  equally  inevita- 
ble red  cushions  and  carpet-covered  foot- 
stools for  the  pews. 

Other  concessions  to  the  spirit  of  the 
age  are  the  electric  lights,  and  the 
accousticon,  or  system  of  pew  telephones, 
for  those  members  of  the  congregation 
who  otherwise  would  be  unable  fully  to 
hear  and  enjoy  the  service. 


OLD  MEETING  HOUSE,  WEST  ROXBURY,  MASS. 


17 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


OUT  OF  DOORS  PULPIT,  GRACE  CHURCH,  NEW  YORK 
MR.  W.  W.  RENWICK,  ARCHITECT 


18 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


CHURCH  VENTILATION 

By  D.  D.  KIMBALL 

PRESIDENT  AMERICAN  SOCIETY  OP  HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  ENGINEERS.  MEMBER  NEW  YORK  STATE 

COMMISSION  ON  VENTILATION. 


“The  Art  of  Ventilation  was  born  too 
soon.”  Thus  does  Prof.  C.  E.  A.  Winslow 
begin  his  admirable  paper  on  “The  New 
Art  of  Ventilation.”* 

During  recent  years  there  has 
been  a vast  amount  of  discus- 
sion on  the  subject  of  ventila- 
tion and  voluminous  papers  have 
been  written  attacking  the  subject  from 
all  sides.  Unfortunately  the  phase  of  the 
agitation  which  has  received  the  greatest 
publicity  has  been  that  making  sensa- 
tional, ill-founded  and  unscientific  attacks 
tending  to  destroy  faith  in  ventilation 
generally.  To  the  interested  and  careful 
observer  or  student  the  results  of  the  best 
work  and  experimentation  point  to  the 
confirmation  of  our  faith  in  ventilation, 
and  most  assuredly  so  in  connection  with 
all  auditoria.  During  this  process,  how- 
ever, Prof.  Winslow’s  remark,  quoted 
above,  has  been  amply  justified,  but  the 
formerly  accepted  quantitative  and  quali- 
tative standards  of  ventilation,  far  from 
being  abandoned  because  of  recent  re- 
search, are  rather  reinforced  and  re- 
established. 

Peculiar  as  it  may  seem,  the  standards 
remain  the  same  but  the  bases  thereof 
have  been  changed  absolutely.  The  old 
standards  were  based  on  the  chemical 
quality  of  the  air  only.  The  new  stand- 
ards, while  recognizing  the  desirability, 
and  even  the  essentiality,  of  pure  air,  lay 
the  greater  stress  on  the  physical  prop- 
erties of  the  air.  Old  standards  were 
based  on  the  carbonic  acid  and  oxygen 
content  of  the  air ; the  new  standards  are 
based  upon  the  requirements  of  tempera- 
ture, humidity  and  air  movement. 

And  so  it  happened  that  the  art  of  ven- 
tilation, born  too  soon,  was  vulnerable, 

*See  transactions  of  the  Fifteenth  International  Con- 
gress on  Hygiene  and  Demography,  held  at  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  September  23rd  to  28th,  1912.  . 


and  therefore  subject  to  failure  because 
its  standards  were  ill-founded  and  incom- 
plete. Nevertheless,  ventilation  in  the 
past  has  accomplished  much  good.  The 
art  of  ventilation  is  now  given  a proper 
basis,  and,  being  complete,  will  be  found 
to  meet  all  requirements  and  be  capable 
of  proving  its  worth. 

The  old  standards  of  air  quantities  for 
ventilation  were  based  upon  a certain  per- 
missible proportion  of  carbon  dioxide  in 
the  air  of  occupied  spaces  during  the 
period  of  occupancy,  on  the  dilution 
theory,  the  essence  of  which  being  that  it 
was  the  province  of  ventilation  to  so 
dilute  the  air  of  the  occupied  space  that 
the  carbon  dioxide  could  not  exceed  a cer- 
tain proportion  in  the  composition  of  the 
air  of  the  room. 

Breathed  air  suffers  certain  chemical 
changes,  the  carbon  dioxide  being  in- 
creased and  the  oxygen  being  decreased, 
but  the  accumulation  of  carbon  dioxide  or 
the  decrease  of  oxygen  to  a harmful  ex- 
tent in  a church  auditorium  is  an  impossi- 
bility. Leakage  about  doors  and  windows, 
and  even  through  the  walls  and  roof,  will 
provide  such  a dilution  of  the  air  that  the 
carbon  dioxide  cannot  increase  to  an  ex- 
tent which  even  approaches  the  danger 
point. 

In  outdoor  air  the  carbon  dioxide  aver- 
ages four  parts  in  ten  thousand  and  the 
oxygen  about  twenty-one  per  cent.  In 
badly  ventilated  auditoria  the  carbon 
dioxide  will  rarely  reach  twenty  parts  in 
ten  thousand  and  the  oxygen  will  not  fall 
below  twenty  per  cent.  In  experimental 
work,  subjects  have  been  exposed  to  an 
atmosphere  containing  over  two  hundred 
parts  of  carbon  dioxide  in  ten  thousand 
and  seventeen  to  eighteen  per  cent,  of 
oxygen  without  ill  effect  so  long  as  the 
temperature,  humidity  and  air  movement 
were  properly  regulated.  However,  no 
one  contends  that  long-continued  subjec- 


19 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


tion  to  such  conditions  may  not  be  harm- 
ful. But  it  has  been  clearly  demonstrated 
that  proper  temperature,  humidity  and 
air  movement  are  the  first  essentials  to 
proper  ventilation. 

Eight  parts  carbonic  acid  per  ten  thou- 
sand parts  air  have  been  generally 


FIRST  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH, 
BUFFALO,  N.  Y.  (SEE  PAGE  30) 


accepted  by  Engineers  as  the  proper 
standard  of  air  quality  for  air  in  audi- 
toria.  With  this  standard  as  a basis  the 
following  simple  formula  has  been  used 
for  determining  the  air  volume  per 
capita  per  minute  which  must  be  sup- 
plied by  the  ventilating  system. 


V=10,000  ^ ^ , in  which 

V=the  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  required 
per  hour,  N = the  number  of  persons  in 
the  room,  G=the  cubic  feet  of  CO2  given 
off  per  hour  per  person  (usually  taken  as 
.6),  S=the  standard  of  purity  of  air  to  be 
maintained  in  the  room,  and  P = the 
standard  of  purity  of  outside  air,  usually 
taken  as  4). 

With  the  desired  standard  of  purity 
taken  as  8 the  formula  would  read 

N.6 

V=10,000  ^ 

This,  figured  on  the  basis  of  a single 
individual,  would  give  a resulting  stand- 
ard of  air  supply  of  1500  cubic  feet  per 
hour.  In  practice  eighteen  hundred  cubic 
feet  has  generally  been  regarded  as  the 
correct  standard. 

It  may  be  claimed  by  some  that  the 
spaciousness  of  a church  auditorium 
makes  such  a rule  inapplicable,  but  of 
what  value  is  the  air  in  the  upper  portion 
of  a room  from  a ventilating  standpoint? 
If  it  could  be  brought  down  into  the  occu- 
pied space,  or  if  the  audience  could  be 
lifted  into  this  upper  strata  of  air,  such 
a claim  might  be  justified,  but  only  then. 
The  fact  remains  that  this  upper  air  does 
not  become  available  for  the  purposes  of 
ventilation. 

The  following  authorities  are  quoted  on 
the  volume  of  air  required  for  ventilation 
in  auditoria  for  systems  operating  on  the 
dilution  principle : 

Carpenter  1000  to  2000  cubic  feet  per  hour 

Allen  2000  “ “ “ “ 

Fletcher 1200  to  1500  “ “ “ “ 

Harrington  ...  .2000  “ “ “ “ 

Rietschel  2148  “ “ “ “ 

The  average  of  the  above  is  well  above 
2000  cubic  feet  per  hour,  which  is  approxi- 
mately that  which  has  been  generally 
used,  and  it  has  been  amply  demonstrated 
that  this  volume  of  air  makes  possible 
satisfactory  results  in  auditorium  ventila- 
tion. 

The  first  of  the  new  standards  of  ven- 
tilation, above  mentioned,  is  temperature. 
While  the  standard  for  temperature  rec- 
ommended for  auditoria  has  not  been 
changed  the  seriousness  of  overheating  is 


20 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


now  realized.  Formerly  this  was  re- 
garded as  a matter  of  discomfort  only; 
now  it  is  realized  that  in  causing  discom- 
fort it  disturbs  certain  physiological 
functions,  often  exceeding  the  capacity  of 
adjustment  of  the  vaso-motor  system, 
promoting  depression,  lassitude,  head- 
ache, dizziness,  and,  in  some  cases,  a rise 
in  body  temperature,  which,  if  carried  to 
extreme  may  develop  symptoms  of  sun- 


stroke. Much  less  harm  results  from  un- 
derheating than  from  overheating,  and 
yet  it  is  the  former  which  is  most  notice- 
able and  which  will  arouse  the  most  re- 
sentment. More  cold  and  serious  illnesses 
result  from  an  overheated,  stuffy,  humid 
atmosphere  in  an  ill-ventilated  room  than 
from  a cold  room. 

The  desirable  temperature  for  audi- 
toria,  as  stated  by  various  authorities,  is 
as  follows: 


1 


CLA.3i  ROO/A, 


5AB^ATH  JCHOOL 


/ 

1 — 

' 1 

--l( 


1 P^L_ 

1 V 1 

n ly 

PLAN  NUMBER  TVv'O,  FIRST  FLOOR- 
HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  SYSTEM 

SECOND  UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH, 
WILKINSBURG,  PA. 

MESSRS.  INGHAM  & BOYD,  ARCHITECTS. 


A.  Morin  . . . .65  to  68  degrees 
W.  N.  Shaw  .58  to  63  degrees 
J.  W.  Thomas. 65  degrees 


It  is  the  opinion  of  the 
writer  that  62  degrees  to 
66  degrees  is  the  most  de- 
sirable standard ; 62  de- 
grees to  prevail  upon  the 
entrance  of  the  audi- 
ence and  66  degrees  to 
be  the  maximum  tem- 
perature attained  dur- 
ing the  period  of  occu- 
pancy. 

Assuming  a tempera- 
ture of  62  degrees  upon 
the  entrance  of  the  audi- 
ence it  can  be  shown  that 
only  by  the  use  of  an 
efficient  ventilation  sys- 
tem may  the  temperature 
of  the  room,  when  occu- 
pied, be  controlled  or  be 
kept  within  or  near  the 
maximum  prescribed. 

One  of  the  most  serious 
elements  in  the  heating 
and  ventilating  problem 
as  applied  to  auditoria  is 
the  heat  given  off  by  the  occupants.  The 
heat  given  off  by  human  beings  at  rest  is 
variously  stated  as  follows: 


Pettenkofer 400  Heat  Units  per  hour 

Benedict  & Milner 375  “ “ “ “ 

Rubner 380  “ “ “ “ 

Landois  & Roseman...  .368  “ “ “ “ 

Atwater  & Benedict. . . . 366  “ “ “ “ 

Fliigge 495  “ “ “ “ 

Wolpert 400  “ “ “ “ 

Discrepancies  arise  from  the  variable- 
ness of  this  factor  of  heat  production. 
The  heat  produced  in  the  body  varies  with 


DETAIL  OF  FRESH  AIR 
INLETS  UNDER  PEWS. 


21 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


the  size  of  the  body,  the  activity,  the  food 
consumed  and  the  dress.  400  B.T.U.  per 
hour  (which  is  approximately  the  average 
of  the  above)  is  the  generally  accepted 
figure  representing  the  hourly  heat  elimi- 
nation from  the  human  body  at  rest. 

Four  hundred  heat  units  will  heat  ap- 
proximately 2000  cubic  feet  of  air  through 
a range  of  ten  degrees.  It  is  generally 
agreed  that  the  temperature  of  the  air 
entering  a room  by  means  of  a ventilating 


//'  

PLAN  NUMBER  TWO,  BASEMENT — HEATING  AND 
VENTILATING  SYSTEM 

SECOND  UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH, 
WILKINSBURG,  PA. 

MESSRS.  INGHAM  & BOYD,  ARCHITECTS 


system  may  not  be  more  than  ten  degrees 
less  than  the  room  temperature  without 
causing  discomfort  or  endangering  the 
health  of  the  occupants  of  the  room.  Thus 
is  fixed,  on  a new  basis,  the  standard  of 
2000  cubic  feet  per  hour  per  occupant,  or 
as  frequently  used,  30  cubic  feet  of  air  per 
minute  per  occupant. 

Based  upon  a temperature  rise  of  five 
degrees  in  the  ventilating  air  Shaw  de- 
termines that  the  air  to  be  supplied 
should  be  3000  cubic  feet 
per  occupant  per  minute. 
Evidently  this  calculation 
involved  is  based  upon 
some  other  figure  than  400 
B.T.U.  for  the  heat  elimi- 
nation from  the  human 
body. 

It  may  be  urged  that  the 
cooling  effect  of  the  walls, 
windows  and  roof  will 
offset  a portion  of  this 
heat  increment.  Mani- 
festly in  mild  weather, 
when  ventilation  is 
most  needed,  this  is  not 
the  case.  In  cold  weather 
the  church  must  be 
warmed  to  not  less  than 
62  degrees  upon  the  en- 
trance of  the  audience. 
The  cooling  effect  of  the 
walls  and  windows  must  be 
constantly  counteracted 
by  the  heating  system,  else 
those  sitting  near  the 
walls,  windows  and  doors 
will  become  chilled  be- 
cause of  air  leakage  and 
heat  absorption,  while 
those  in  the  central  por- 
tion of  the  auditorium 
will  in  no  case  be  relieved 
by  the  cooling  effect  of  the 
walls,  windows  and  doors. 

Or  it  may  be  said  that 
the  church  is  seldom  used 
to  its  maximum  capacity  and  thus  the 
standard  requirements  for  ventilation 
may  be  lowered.  An  offset  to  this  exists 
in  the  fact  that  the  ten  degrees  differen- 
tial between  the  entering  air  and  room 
temperatures  were  much  better  five  de- 
grees, as  recommended  by  Shaw,  Thomas 


22 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


and  others,  but  this  would  require  not 
less  than  fifty  cubic  feet  of  air  per  person 
per  minute.  Thirty  cubic  feet  of  air  per 
person  per  minute  has  made  possible 
entirely  satisfactory  results,  with  condi- 
tions as  they  have  been  found  to  exist, 
and  at  reasonable  installation  and 
operating  costs,  both  of  which 
would  be  largely  increased 
with  fifty  cubic  feet  of  air 
per  person  per  minute  as  the 
standard. 

As  a matter  of  fact  the 
heating  effect  of  lights  and 
occupants  on  the  air  supplied 
by  the  ventilating  system, 
with  thirty  cubic  feet  of  air 
per  person  per  minute  as  the  standard, 
will  be  found  to  equal  fourteen  to  fif- 
teen degrees  in  a well-filled  auditorium. 
This  involves  a serious  problem  in  the 
diffusion  of  the  air  to  take  up  this  heat 
increment  and  to  prevent  drafts  or 
overheated  and  stagnant  areas.  This 
is  equivalent  to  a fifty  per  cent,  increase 
over  the  ten  degree  differential  in 
temperatures  above  mentioned,  and 
only  skillful  designing  of  the  ventilat- 
ing system  will  give  satisfactory  re- 
sults. The  adoption  of  the  fifty  cubic 
feet  per  person  per  minute  standard 
will  lessen  this  difficulty,  but  in  view  of 
the  oft  demonstrated  fact  that  satisfac- 
tory results  can  be  obtained  by  proper 
designing  and  operation  with  thirty  cubic 
feet  of  air  per  person  per  minute,  the 
writer  does  not  believe  that  this  standard 
need  be  changed  from  thirty  to 
fifty  cubic  feet  of  air  per  person 
per  minute,  or  that  the  additional 
installation  and  operating  costs  are 
justified. 

Experience  has  demonstrated 
that  a reduction  in  the  air  supply 
of  the  ventilating  system  and 
lessened  satisfaction  go  hand  in 
hand.  Even  though  the  maximum 
demand  is  made  upon  the  ventilat- 
ing system  but  rarely,  if  it  fails  to  give 
satisfaction  when  the  demand  comes  the 
system  is  put  down  once  and  for  all  as  a 
complete  failure. 

A properly  designed  system  of  church 
ventilation  supplying  and  exhausting 
thirty  cubic  feet  of  air  per  occupant  per 


minute  should  give  satisfactory  results, 
but  a system  handling  a less  volume  of 
air,  say  twenty  cubic  feet  of  air  per  occu- 
pant per  minute,  will  surely  involve  diffi- 
culties from  overheating,  cold  drafts  or 
stagnant  areas. 

The  second  requirement  of  the 
new  standard  of  ventilation  relates 
to  humidity.  Admittedly  there  is 
little  of  agreement  as  to  the  exact 


5ECTIO/S  AA 

yca/i  sfe  / -o ' 


Pj-AM  OT-  ZxHAuai  Tah  Pooav 

SSTOAD  'H.OO'R 


DETAILS  OF  EXHAUST  APPARATUS — NOTE,  ESPECI- 
ALLY, FAN  FOUNDATIONS  (SEE  PAGE  31) 

SECOND  UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH, 
WILKINSBURG,  PA. 


23 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


desirable  standard  of  humidity,  but  there 
is  a very  general  agreement  that  in  ordi- 
nary temperatures  the  relative  humidity 
should  not  be  less  than  thirty  per  cent, 
nor  greater  than  sixty  per  cent.  Witness 
the  following  authorities: 

Wolpert 40-60%  Rubner 30-60% 

Oesperlen  ....40-60%  Riepzchel  ....30-40% 

Scherer  30-60%  Richardson  . . .40-60% 

Paul 40-60%  Shepherd 30-55% 

Rietschel  40-60%  Brefflar 40-50% 

Smith 50-60% 

Only  in  cold  weather  will  the  relative 
humidity  in  a church,  when  warmed,  be 
less  than  thirty  per  cent,  before  occu- 
pancy. Moisture  given  off  by  the  occu- 
pants of  the  room  will,  except  in  ex- 
tremely cold  weather,  shortly  raise  the 
humidity  of  the  room  above  the  minimum 
standard  named.  For  this  reason,  and 
the  further  reason  that  subjection  to 
properly  warmed  air  of  slightly  less  than 
thirty  per  cent,  relative  humidity  for 
short  periods  can  cause  neither  uncom- 
fortable feelings  nor  harmful  effect,  arti- 
ficial humidification  of  auditoria  is  not 
necessary. 

The  efect  of  dry  air  is  to  produce  a 
rapid  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the 
surface  of  the  skin,  causing  a feeling  of 
coldness  which  can  only  be  overcome  by 
a higher  room  temperature.  Excessively 
moist  air,  if  of  a low  temperature,  causes 
a feeling  of  coldness  because  of  the  rapid 
absorption  of  heat  from  the  body  by  the 
moist  air,  while  this  moist  air,  if  of  a high 
temperature  causes  a feeling  of  heat  and 
discomfort  because  it  fails  to  take  up,  by 
the  process  of  evaporation,  the  moisture 
from  the  pores  of  the  skin,  and  in  so  do- 
ing it  fails  to  cool  the  body  in  failing  to 
take  up  the  latent  heat  of  evaporation. 

Temperature  and  humidity  are  closely 
interlinked.  A high  temperature  com- 
bined with  a high  humidity  is  vastly  more 
uncomfortable  than  a low  temperature 
with  high  humidity.  Unfortunately  high 
temperature  and  high  humidity  are  fre- 
quently coincident  in  auditoria,  both  be- 
ing principally  due  to  the  effect  of  the 
audience. 

The  moisture  given  off  by  the  human 
being  at  rest  is  stated  by  Thomas  to  be 
one-twelfth  of  a pound  per  hour  and  by 


Milner  and  Benedict  to  be  one-fourteenth 
to  one-twelfth  of  a pound  per  hour  and 
by  others  at  approximately  this  same 
amount.  In  a properly  ventilated  audi- 
torium this  moisture  cannot  cause  ex- 
cessive humidity  in  the  air  of  the  room. 
Even  in  an  unventilated  church  this  mois- 
ture will  not,  save  in  very  mild  weather, 
cause  excessive  humidity  in  the  general 
air  of  the  room,  but,  and  herein  lies  the 
crux  of  the  whole  matter,  without  the  in- 
fluence of  the  ventilating  system  the  heat 
and  moisture  given  off  from  the  bodies  of 
the  persons  in  the  room  remain  within 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  person,  in 
the  form  of  a blanket  of  hot  moist  air 
immediately  surrounding  the  body,  caus- 
ing all  of  the  discomfort  which  would  ac- 
company a general  high  room  tempera- 
ture with  high  humidity. 

In  confirmation  of  these  views  refer- 
ence may  be  made  to  Dr.  Leonard  Hill’s 
experiments  in  which  he  placed  subjects 
in  a small  closed  chamber  having  no  venti- 
lation, keeping  them  therein  until  the  in- 
crease of  carbon  dioxide  and  the  decrease 
of  oxygen  greatly  exceeded  that  ever 
found  in  the  air  of  an  auditorium.  The 
air  became  so  bad  that  attempts  of  the 
subjects  to  light  cigarettes  were  fruit- 
less. The  temperature  and  humidity  with- 
in the  chamber  became  very  high  and 
movement  of  the  air  was  lacking.  The 
discomfort  of  the  subjects  became 
marked.  Breathing  of  outside  air 
through  a tube  produced  no  relief.  The 
agitation  of  the  air  by  means  of  electric 
fans  produced  instant  relief  which  con- 
tinued until  the  temperature  and  humid- 
ity further  increased.  The  result  of  this 
experiment  has  been  confirmed  by  other 
investigators. 

Unless  an  ample  movement  of  air  of  a 
proper  temperature  and  humidity  is 
assured  the  temperature  and  humidity  of 
the  air  surrounding  the  body  become  ex- 
cessive and  a severe  tax  is  imposed  upon 
the  delicate  machinery  by  means  of  which 
the  bodily  temperature  is  regulated.  This 
system  governs  the  flow  of  the  blood  to 
the  skin  for  the  purpose  of  giving  off  such 
heat  as  becomes  necessary  to  maintain  an 
equable  bodily  temperature.  If  the  brain 
or  vital  organs  are  robbed  of  their  blood 
supply  in  this  process,  dullness,  inatten- 


24 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


tion  and  discomfort  inevitably  result. 
Further,  the  overheated  auditor,  in  pass- 
ing from  the  hot  room  to  the  cold  air  out- 
side, is  rendered  susceptible  to  chills  and 
the  danger  of  colds,  bronchitis  and  other 
diseases  of  the  respiratory  system. 

It  is  most  important  to  realize  that  the 
entire  surface  of  the  body  demands  proper 
atmospheric  conditions  for  the  main- 
tenance of  comfort  and  health.  It  may 
be  said  that,  in  effect,  the  entire  surface 
of  the  body  breathes  and  that  it  is  far 
from  sufficient  to  consider  the  respiratory 
system  alone  in  the  consideration  of  the 
ventilation  problem. 

Thus  we  progress  from  the  old  views 
which  merely  required  a dilution  of  the 
breathed  air  to  the  new  standard  which 
demands  that  we  provide  for  all  of  those 
conditions  which  make  for  comfort  and 
health,  in  doing  which  we  evolve  a process 
of  body  bathing  with  fresh  air  of  proper 
temperature  and  humidity. 

The  so-called  ‘‘chimney  effect’’  of  bodily 
heat  and  vapor  is  altogether  insufficient 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  a hot,  moist 
body  aerial  envelope.  In  fact,  this  “chim- 
ney effect”  of  bodily  heat  and  moisture, 
stated  by  Thomas  to  be  equal  to  approxi- 
mately one  inch  to  two  inches  per  second 
in  air  movement,  is  so  slight  as  to  be  of  no 
moment  in  the  matter  of  a relief  from  op- 
pressive atmospheric  conditions  or  in  de- 
termining the  type  of  the  ventilating  sys- 
tem to  be  used.  So  slight,  in  fact,  is  this 
effect  that  the  cooling  effect  of  walls,  win- 
dows, doors  and  roof  much  more  than  off- 
sets the  alleged  “chimney  effect.” 

For  the  removal  of  this  envelope  of  hot 
moist  air  a definite  air  movement  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  every  occupant  of 
the  room  becomes  essential.  This  does 
not  mean  currents  of  air  here  and  there 
in  isolated  sections  of  the  room  but  a thor- 
oughly diffused  and  reasonably  constant 
movement  of  air  in  every  portion  of  the 
occupied  space  of  the  room,  not  in  the 
forms  of  drafts  but  in  the  form  of  a gentle 
motion  of  air  throughout  the  occupied 
portion  of  the  room,  which,  while  accom- 
plishing the  purpose  intended,  is  not 
sensible  as  moving  air  to  the  occupants 
of  the  room. 

The  permissible  velocity  of  air  sur- 
rounding the  body  is  given  as  one  and 


one-half  feet  to  two  feet  per  second  by 
Boyd,  two  feet  to  three  feet  per  second  by 
Fletcher,  and  two  feet  to  three  feet  per 
second  by  Parke.  The  author  regards 
one  and  one-half  feet  per  second  as  the 
desirable  limit  of  this  air  movement,  but 
if  the  ventilating  air  is  properly  diffused 
no  such  velocity  of  air  movement  is  nec- 
essary to  give  perfectly  satisfactory  re- 
sults. 

In  an  upward  or  downward  current 
ventilating  system  (as  commonly  used  in 
theatres)  the  velocity  of  air  movement 
based  upon  gross  floor  area  rarely  exceeds 
ten  feet  per  minute.  Although  this  air 
movement  may  seem  slight  it  is  sufficient 
to  accomplish  its  purpose,  but  it  must  be 
positive,  constant  and  cover  the  entire 
occupied  area  of  the  room. 

Such  results  can  only  be  secured  by 
means  of  an  efficient  ventilating  system. 

Thirty  cubic  feet  of  air  per  occupant 
per  minute,  as  specified  above,  as  the 
standard  of  air  supply  for  church  venti- 
lation is  found  in  practice  to  be  the  mini- 
mum which  will  maintain  satisfactory  air 
movement  and  then  only  when  properly 
diffused  or  distributed. 

Brief  reference  only  need  be  made  to 
the  subject  of  natural,  or  window,  venti- 
lation, for  few  of  even  its  strongest  advo- 
cates would  consider  its  application  to 
auditoria.  Tlie  windows  cannot  be  opened 
without  serious  inconvenience  to  those 
sitting  nearby,  this  being  especially  true 
in  severe  weather.  It  is  impossible  to 
maintain  the  temperature  in  an  audi- 
torium uniformly  with  open  windows,  and 
a proper  diffusion  of  the  entering  air  is 
impossible.  Even  clear  story  windows 
are  subject  to  the  same  objections,  for  the 
cold  air  most  frequently  falls  in  very  ob- 
jectionable drafts  on  those  sitting  in  the 
pews.  In  warm  weather,  when  drafts 
and  breezes  are  welcome,  the  windows 
should  be  freely  used. 

The  ideal  church  heating  and  ventilat- 
ing system  should  be  so  designed  as  to 
entirely  separate  the  heating  and  venti- 
lating functions  of  the  system.  While 
this  is  generally  advocated  by  ventilation 
authorities  it  seems  especially  desirable 
in  church  ventilation. 

The  church  presents  very  large  areas  of 
walls  and  windows,  and  large  entrance 


25 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


doors,  the  cooling  effect  of  which  is  great. 
The  high  walls  and  large  expanse  of  roof 
usually  found  in  church  buildings  are  suf- 
ficient to  cool  large  volumes  of  air  which 
frequently  will,  unless  proper  care  is  exer- 
cised in  the  design  of  the  heating  system, 
fall  upon  the  audience  as  cold  drafts. 
This  should  be  prevented  by  means  of  a 
heating  system  so  designed, 
11^  and  with  units  so  spaced  and 

I located  as  to  balance  the 

cooling  effect  of  walls,  win- 
dows, roofs  and  doors. 
Peferably  this  should  be  ac- 
complished by  means  of 


ing  the  auditorium.  Otherwise  most 
annoying  drafts  will  be  experienced  by 
those  sitting  near  the  doors. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  heat- 
ing effect  of  the  occupants  of  the  audi- 
torium is  very  large.  To  overcome  this 
a ventilating  system  must  very  often  be- 
come a cooling  system.  This  can  only  be 
realized  if  the  heating  and  ventilating 
system  is  so  designed  that  the  heating  and 
ventilating  elements  thereof  may  act 
separately,  the  heating  system  to  balance 
the  heat  losses  through  walls,  windows, 
roof  and  doors,  while  the  ventilating  sys- 
tem provides  fresh  air  for  ventilation 
which  shall  be  cool  enough  to  overcome 
the  heating  effect  of  the  audience. 

In  making  the  above  statement  the 
author  would  not  have  it  inferred  that  the 
design  of  a successful  all  indirect  heating 
and  ventilating  system  is  not  possible,  but 
rather  that  such  a system,  properly  de- 
signed, involves  additional  complications 


DIAGRAM  SHOWING  ARRANGEMENT  OF  FRESH  AIR  AND 

FOR  CHURCH  VENTILATION 


VENT  OPENINGS 


direct  radiators,  exposed,  if  possible,  or 
they  may  be  concealed  in  pockets  if  the 
same  are  properly  designed.  These  radi- 
ators should  be  placed  along  the  exterior 
walls,  under  the  windows  and  near  the 
doors. 

A large  amount  of  radiation  should  be 
placed  in  the  entrance  vestibules  so  that 
the  air  coming  in  through  the  doors 
will  be  properly  warmed  before  reach- 


in installation  and  operation  and  also 
additional  expense  in  both,  while  giving 
less  satisfactory  results  in  operation. 

The  use  of  direct  radiation  also  is  de- 
sirable for  preheating  purposes  and  for 
warming  the  building  when  a small 
amount  of  heat  only  is  required  for 
a few  people.  Direct  radiation  is  espe- 
cially desirable  in  vestibules  and  small 
rooms. 


26 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


In  small  churches,  seating,  say,  not  over 
two  hundred  or  even  three  hundred 
people,  a gravity  system  of  heating  and 
ventilating,  properly  designed,  will  give 
very  efficient  results,  but  for  larger  build- 
ings a fan  system  will  operate  much  more 
effectively  and  at  less  expense.  In  a 
gravity  system  a considerable  amount  of 
heat  is  necessary  to  maintain  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  exhaust  system,  this  heat 
being  applied  through  the  medium  of  ac- 
celerating radiators  in  the  vent  flues. 
The  heat  so  applied  to  this  exhausted  air 
goes  directly  out  of  the  building.  A 
simple  mathematical  calculation  will  dem- 
onstrate that  the  amount  of  energy  so 
applied  will  cost  approximately  ten  times 
as  much  as  the  electric  current  necessary 
to  move  the  same  amount  of  air  by  means 
of  an  electric  motor-driven  fan,  this  cal- 
culation being  based  on  the  usual  rate  of 
five  cents  per  kilowatt  hour  for  electric 
current  used  for  power. 

In  designing  a gravity  system  of  venti- 
lation it  is  customary  to  base  all  calcula- 
tions on  an  assumed  difference  in  temper- 
ature of  forty  degrees  between  the  room 
temperature  and  the  outside  temperature, 
that  is,  assuming  sixty-six  degrees  as  the 
room  temperature,  calculations  are  based 
on  an  assumed  outside  temperature  of 
twenty-six  degrees.  Under  this  condition 
only  will  exactly  the  amount  of  air  deter- 
mined upon  be  supplied  by  the  gravity 
supply  system  or  be  exhausted  by  the 
gravity  exhaust  system.  And  even  , this 
is  largely  affected  by  wind  velocity  and 
direction.  When  the  outside  tempera- 
ture is  lower  a greater  amount  of  air  will 
be  supplied  and  exhausted  and  when  the 
outside  temperature  is  higher  a less 
amount  of  air  will  be  supplied  and  ex- 
hausted. Inasmuch  as  the  average  out- 
side temperature  is  higher  than  twenty- 
six  degrees  a less  amount  of  air  than  de- 
termined upon  will  be  exhausted  for  the 
major  portion  of  the  heating  season.  This 
is  especially  serious  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  ventilation  is  most  needed  in  mild 
weather  or  when  the  outside  temperature 
is  from  forty  to  sixty  degrees.  At  such 
times  the  gravity  ventilating  system  fails 
signally  to  give  the  results  desired. 

For  auditoria  of  medium  size  a gravity 
system  of  fresh  air  supply  combined  with 


a fan  system  of  air  exhaust  will  give 
fairly  satisfactory  results. 

For  large  auditoria  both  the  fresh  air 
supply  and  the  vitiated  air  exhaust  should 
be  assured  by  the  use  of  fans  operated 
by  electric  motors. 

The  engineer  is  constantly  asked  if  a 
system  which  supplies  fresh  air  without 
regard  to  its  exhaust,  or  which  exhausts 
the  vitiated  air  without  regard  to  a fresh 
air  supply,  will  not  be  a satisfactory  sys- 
tem of  ventilation.  While  it  may  not  be 
disputed  that  either  a fresh  air  supply 
system  or  an  exhaust  system  will  benefit 
the  atmospheric  conditions  of  an  audi- 
torium it  may  be  positively  stated  that 
neither  will  give  good  ventilation  to  the 
room  or  will  eliminate  complaints.  Only 
a proper  combination  of  a fresh  air  sup- 
ply system  and  vitiated  air  exhaust  sys- 
tem will  assure  good  ventilation  in  an 
auditorium. 

The  distribution  or  diffusion  of  the  air 
used  for  ventilation  has  already  been  em- 
phasized. To  bring  this  about  the  thor- 
ough distribution  of  both  the  fresh  air 
and  vent  openings  is  most  essential. 
There  should  be  multiple  air  inlets  and  ex- 
haust openings  in  every  auditorium.  The 
mechanical  conditions  incident  to  the  air 
entering  from  a fresh  air  register  and  the 
air  leaving  through  the  vent  register  are 
essentially  different.  In  the  case  of  the 
former  the  air  comes  in  with  a velocity 
which  propels  it  straight  on  into  the  room, 
for  which  reason  the  fresh  air  openings 
must  be  so  placed  that  the  air  emerging 
therefrom  will  not  strike  any  of  the  occu- 
pants of  the  room,  or  the  number,  size  and 
location  of  such  fresh  air  openings  must 
be  so  arranged  that  the  velocity  of  the  air 
or  the  volume  of  the  air  currents  will  not 
be  such  as  to  cause  any  inconvenience  to 
those  occupying  the  room.  In  case  of  the 
vent  openings  the  drawing  effect  of  the 
exhaust  system  is  such  that  it  can  be  felt 
a very  short  distance  only  from  the  reg- 
ister opening.  Thus  if  these  openings  are 
not  made  too  large  and  are  sufficiently 
distributed  they  may  be  placed  in  closer 
proximity  to  the  occupants  of  the  room 
than  is  possible  in  the  case  of  the  fresh 
air  openings. 

The  author  believes  that  the  following 
is  a safe  rule:  No  occupant  of  the  room 


27 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


should  be  farther  than  twenty-five  feet 
from  a fresh  air  register  or  nearer  than 
six  feet  to  a vent  register,  and  that  there 
should  be  not  less  than  one  fresh  air  and 
one  vent  opening  to  each  thirty  occupants 
of  the  room.  Insofar  as  the  number  of 
fresh  air  and  vent  openings  are  increased 
and  generally  distributed  the  satisfaction 
obtained  from  the  operation  of  the  ven- 
tilating system  will  be  increased.  In  many 
cases  some  members  of  the  audience  must 
be  more  than  twenty-five  feet  from  the 
fresh  air  openings  but  a proper  distribu- 
tion of  the  fresh  air  openings  (if  in  the 
walls)  and  an  increased  number  of  vent 
openings  generally  distributed  over  the 
floor  of  the  auditorium  will  overcome  this 
difficulty. 

The  greater  number  of  complaints  in 
church  ventilation  occur  at  points  under 
galleries.  Therefore  special  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  proper  ventilation 
of  that  portion  of  the  auditorium  under 
the  galleries.  Also  the  gallery  space 
should  be  given  proper  consideration  in 
the  design  of  the  ventilating  system,  and 
the  pulpit  platform  and  choir  gallery 
should  not  be  neglected. 

Registers  for  either  fresh  air  or  vent, 
especially  the  former,  directly  in  the  floor 
should  be  avoided  wherever  possible. 

Church  auditoria,  because  of  their  con- 
struction, are  not  as  well  adapted  to  the 
usual  downward  or  upward  current  venti- 
lating system  as  are  theatres  where  there 
are  available  large  plenum  and  exhaust 
chambers  below  and  above  the  audi- 
torium. However,  such  systems  may  be 
approximated  in  churches  by  introducing 
the  fresh  air  at  a considerable  number  of 
well  distributed  fresh  air  openings  in  the 
walls  or  window  sills  and  exhausting  the 
air  through  a large  number  of  openings 
under  the  pews.  It  is  believed  that  this 
method  is  better  than  the  reverse  method 
because  of  the  fact  that  the  entering  air 
must  frequently  be  admitted  at  ten  to  fif- 
teen degrees  less  than  room  temperature. 
This  means  that  if  sixty-six  degrees  is 
desired  in  the  auditorium  the  entering  air 
will  possess  a temperature  of  from  fifty- 
one  to  fifty-six  degrees.  Air  at  this  low 
temperature  cannot  be  admitted  directly 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  occupants  of  the 
room  without  causing  serious  chilling  and 


discomfort.  It  can,  however,  be  admitted 
in  the  manner  described  without  causing 
any  such  discomfort,  for  the  air  will  enter 
well  above  the  heads  of  the  audience  and 
gradually  take  up  the  heat  increment, 
thus  being  warmed  to  a proper  tempera- 
ture before  striking  the  occupants  of  the 
room.  Such  systems  have  been  installed 
in  a great  many  cases  and  have  given 
most  satisfactory  results. 

In  case  an  auditorium  must  be  used  in 
warm  weather  when  heating  is  not  re- 
quired and  only  ventilation  and  cooling  is 
essential,  there  then  being  no  danger  of 
chilling  the  occupants  of  the  room  with 
the  entering  air,  splendid  results  in  the 
ventilating  and  cooling  of  the  auditorium 
have  been  accomplished  by  so  designing 
the  ventilating  plant  that  both  fans  can 
be  made  to  blow  air  into  the  auditorium, 
this  being  accomplished  by  the  simple 
shifting  of  one  damper  in  the  exhaust 
system.  In  this  case  the  air  is  allowed  to 
make  its  exit  through  doors  and  windows. 
This  applies  to  warm  weather  ventilation 
only.  As  an  auxiliary  to  the  above  plan 
a simple  installation  in  the  roof  space, 
where  such  exists,  of  an  electrically  driven 
exhaust  fan  of  the  disc  type  of  sufficient 
capacity  to  exhaust  an  amount  of  air 
equal  to  that  supplied  by  both  fans,  when 
both  are  blowing  in  air,  will  assure  the 
quickest  possible  removal  of  the  hot  air 
and  the  best  possible  ventilation  of  the 
room. 

The  use  of  both  fans  for  blowing  air 
into  the  room  is  possible  only  when  the  ex- 
haust air  openings  are  so  distributed  and 
placed  that  the  air,  when  entering  the 
room,  will  not  directly  strike  any  of  the 
audience. 

Simplicity  of  design  is  especially  to  be 
commended.  While  it  is  desired  that  this 
should  be  extended  to  all  of  the  details  of 
the  system  it  applies  with  less  force  to 
the  duct  system,  inasmuch  as  there  is 
nothing  about  this  which  at  any  time  re- 
quires the  attention  of  the  operator.  Sim- 
plicity should  be  especially  evidenced  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  heating  plant  and 
that  portion  of  the  ventilating  plant 
which  includes  the  air  filters,  indirect 
heating  elements,  fans,  motors  and  the 
operating  devices  therefor.  The  charac- 
ter of  the  janitorial  service  usually  ap- 


28 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


plied  to  such  plants  is  far  from  that  which 
would  be  economical  to  the  owners,  and 
therefore  the  element  of  simplicity  has  all 
the  greater  importance. 

Such  matters  as  organic  content,  or 
crowd  poison,  in  the  air,  aerial  infection, 
odors,  ozone  and  dust  need  be  referred  to 
but  briefly.  The  consensus  of  opinion  is 
that  there  is  no  organic  matter  or  crowd 
poison  in  the  air  of  occupied  spaces  which 
has  any  serious  bearing  on  health,  and 
that  aerial  infection  is  probably  impos- 
sible, or  in  any  case  it  is  not  materially 
affected  by  ventilation.  The  use  of 
ozone  as  a substitute  for,  or  even  an  aid 
to  ventilation,  in  other  than  industrial 
work,  is  no  longer  urged  by  the  strongest 
advocate  of  the  use  of  ozone. 

Dust  is  no  longer  regarded  as  consti- 
tuting a physiological  menace  but  should 
be  eliminated  because  of  its  annoyance 
and  because  of  its  disastrous  effect  on  the 
decorations,  finish  and  furnishings  of  the 
church.  It  certainly  does  not  exist  in  the 
air  of  the  church  in  harmful  quantities. 
It  is  claimed  by  some,  however,  that 
dust  coming  in  contact  with  the  steam 
heating  surface  distills  ammonia  and  ab- 
sorbs some  oxygen,  and  although  this  is 
far  from  being  proven  there  certainly 
can  be  no  dispute  that  every  possible  ef- 
fort should  be  made  to  eliminate  the  dust. 

Odors,  such  as  are  always  given  off 
from  the  mouths,  bodies  and  clothing, 
will  always  occur  in  a densely  occupied 
apartment  lacking  proper  ventilation. 
They  are  certainly  objectionable  and,  even 
though  it  may  be  agreed  that  they  have 
no  physiological  significance,  our  sense  of 
decency  should  impel  us  to  provide  that 
degree  of  ventilation  which  will  dilute  the 
air  to  such  an  extent  that  disagreeable 
odors  cannot  exist. 

It  is  not  proposed  in  this  article  to  dis- 
cuss in  detail  the  apparatus  used  in  church 
heating  and  ventilating  systems  but  a few 
general  statements  anent  governing  prin- 
ciples will  be  offered. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  in  a majority  of 
cases  the  boiler  room  must  be  placed 
directly  under  the  auditorium.  It  is  de- 
sirable that  the  boiler  room  be  placed  in 
an  isolated  position  so  that  the  noise  and 
dirt  connected  therewith  may  be  kept 
from  the  principal  rooms  of  the  building. 


Whenever  possible  the  coal  room  should 
be  made  large  enough  to  hold  a season’s 
supply  of  fuel  as  this  enables  the  purchas- 
ing of  fuel  at  the  season  when  coal  is  at 
its  lowest  price.  This  room  should  be  so 
arranged  that  all  of  this  coal  may  be  put 
in  without  basketing,  trimming  or  re- 
handling. 

One  of  the  most  prolific  sources  of  diffi- 
culty in  church  heating  and  ventilating 
systems  is  the  chimney.  Frequently  it  is 
insufficient  in  cross-sectional  area  and 
more  frequently  it  is  insufficient  in  height. 
Instances  are  frequently  found  where  the 
top  of  the  chimney  is  below  portions  of 
the  roof  with  the  result  that  the  draft  is 
insufficient  and  down-drafts  are  common. 
The  logical  and  usual  result  of  this  is  that 
the  boilers  operate  inefficiently  and  fail 
to  give  the  capacity  required,  while  gas  in 
large  quantities  is  frequently  blown  from 
the  furnaces  into  the  building.  The  top 
of  the  chimney  should  invariably  exceed, 
by  not  less  than  two  feet,  the  highest  por- 
tion of  the  roof  of  the  building. 

A steam  heating  system  will  be  found 
most  satisfactory  for  church  purposes. 
Hot  water  is  rarely  used  and  is  objection- 
able because  of  the  danger  of  freezing 
when  the  building  is  not  kept  warm  in 
cold  weather.  It  is  also  slow  in  warming 
up  and  equally  slow  in  cooling  off  in  case 
the  building  becomes  overheated.  Fur- 
naces are  adaptable  to  small  churches 
only.  They  are  impractical  from  a venti- 
lating standpoint  in  large  buildings. 

As  has  already  been  urged,  direct  radi- 
ators should  be  used  to  an  extent  which 
will  balance  the  heat  losses  through  walls, 
windows,  doors  and  roof,  but  in  determin- 
ing the  amount  of  direct  radiation  it  is 
not  desirable  to  take  into  account  the  air 
within  the  room.  This  should  be  taken 
into  account  in  the  design  of  the  ventilat- 
ing system.  The  direct  radiators  may  be 
concealed  in  pockets  if  desired,  but  as  a 
rule  inconspicuous  locations  can  be  found 
for  exposed  radiators.  When  concealed 
the  amount  of  radiation  must  be  increased 
by  twenty  to  forty  per  cent.,  depending 
upon  the  method  adopted  in  constructing 
the  pockets,  and  the  register  area  over  the 
radiators.  The  registers  may  cover  the 
entire  face  of  the  radiators  or  they  may 
be  arranged  with  one  register  face  at  or 


29 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


below  the  bottom  of  the  radiator  and  an- 
other register  face  with  the  bottom 
thereof  at  the  top  or  above  the  top  of  the 
radiator.  The  minimum  height  of  the 
pocket  should  be  such  that  there  would 
be  a space  below  and  above  the  radiator 
equal  to  the  depth  of  the  pocket.  Suffi- 
cient space  should  be  allowed  at  the  ends 
of  the  radiator  for  connections  and  valves 
with  easy  access  to  the  valves  provided. 

Special  care  should  be  given  to  the  plac- 
ing of  radiators  in  the  vestibule,  these 
radiators  being  from  two  to  three  times 
as  large  as  is  required  for  the  actual 
warming  of  the  vestibule  when  the  doors 
are  closed. 

By  reference  to  the  plans  of  the  small 
church  illustrated  herein,  it  will  be  noted 
that  access  from  the  front  door  into  the 
auditorium  is  gained  only  by  passing 
from  the  outer  to  an  inner  vestibule  and 
thence  into  the  church.  Such  an  arrange- 
ment provides  for  the  heating  of  such  air 
as  may  blow  in  and  prevents  a direct  draft 
on  those  sitting  in  the  rear  of  the  audi- 
torium. 

Uses  are  frequently  made  of  registers 
in  the  ceiling  connecting  with  ventilators 
on  the  roof  as  a means  of  heat  relief.  As 
a means  of  ventilation  they  are  of  no 
value  whatever  inasmuch  as  they  have  no 
effect  on  the  air  of  the  occupied  portion 
of  the  auditorium.  Worse  still,  they  are 
very  objectionable  because  cold  air  will 
often  blow  down  through  these  ceiling 
registers  into  the  auditorium,  forming 
most  annoying  drafts  on  those  sitting  be- 
low. If  installed,  means  must  be  provided 
for  shutting  off  when  necessary,  and  with- 
out fans  in  connection  therewith,  they  re- 
quire extreme  good  judgment  on  the  part 
of  the  janitor  in  their  use. 

The  use  of  an  automatic  tempera- 
ture controlling  system  for  church  heat- 
ing is  strongly  advocated.  Manual  con- 
trol of  temperature  in  an  auditorium 
is  practically  impossible.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  room  increases  very  rapidly 
after  it  becomes  occupied  and  but  lit- 
tle opportunity  is  offered  the  janitor  to 
get  at  the  radiators  and  shut  them  off. 
Automatic  means  of  temperature  control 
should  be  separately  applied  to  the  direct 
radiators  that  the  direct  heat  may  be 
maintained  only  in  so  far  as  the  cooling 


effect  of  walls,  windows,  doors  and  roof 
require,  and  it  should  also  be  applied 
separately  to  the  ventilating  system  so 
that  the  temperature  of  the  ventilating 
air  may  be  maintained  at  just  the  proper 
point  to  maintain  a proper  room  tempera- 
ture while  removing  the  heat  accumula- 
tion. 

Some  method  of  air  filtration  should  be 
provided  in  large  buildings  where  large 
volumes  of  air  are  handled,  to  eliminate 
the  dust  from  the  entering  air.  This  may 
be  well  done  by  the  use  of  cloth  filtering 
screens  of  either  the  ‘‘bag”  type  or  the 
“zig-zag”  type,  or  it  may  be  more  effi- 
ciently done  by  the  use  of  air  washers. 
These  air  washers  need  not  have  the 
humidifying  attachments  inasmuch  as 
artificial  humidification  is  not  necessary. 
The  air  washers  are  more  efficient  in  air 
cleaning  and  are  less  troublesome  to  keep 
clean  and  efficient.  An  air  washer,  de- 
signed for  the  purpose,  may  also  prove  a 
desirable  adjunct  in  the  cooling  work  of 
the  ventilating  system  in  warm  weather. 

The  piping  system  should  be  as  simple 
as  possible,  but  extreme  care  must  be 
taken  to  secure  ample  size  and  pitch  of 
pipes  and  place  them  at  proper  levels  so 
that  there  will  be  no  occurrence  of 
“snapping”  or  other  noise.  These  steam 
pipes  should  be  thoroughly  covered  with 
asbestos  or  magnesia  insulating  cover- 
ings of  the  best  make  to  economize  in  the 
operation  of  the  plant  and  to  prevent 
heating  where  and  when  not  desired  in 
basement  rooms.  The  two  pipe  system  is 
preferable  for  church  buildings. 

Air  valves,  where  used,  should  be  of  the 
drip  line  pattern  with  drip  piping  carried 
to  a sink  or  other  convenient  point  in  the 
basement,  or  better  still  to  an  air  remov- 
ing pump.  The  float  type  valve  without 
the  drip  pipe  should  never  be  used  as  alto- 
gether too  frequently  these  valves  will 
give  trouble  during  church  service  by 
causing  a sputtering  of  water  or  a hiss- 
ing of  steam. 

Plans  of  two  church  buildings  are  illus- 
trated herewith.  Plan  number  one  is  that 
of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.  (see  page  20),  the  main 
floor  plan  only  being  presented.  The 
building  was  built  many  years  ago  and 
this  ventilating  system  was  installed  two 


30 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


years  ago.  This  plan  is  shown  to  illus- 
trate the  point  made  above  relating  to  the 
distribution  of  the  fresh  air  and  vent 
registers.  As  will  be  noted  the  air  is  sup- 
plied to  the  main  auditorium  through 
twenty-six  inlet  sources  and  it  is  ex- 
hausted at  ninety-three  points.  If  this 
system  were  designed  for  a new  building 
the  fresh  air  registers  would  not  have 
been  placed  in  the  floor  and  the  number  of 
vent  registers  would  have  been  increased 
so  as  to  give  a greater  distribution  of  the 
air. 

The  fresh  air  is  furnished  by  means  of 
a fan  system  incorporated  into  which  are 
air  filters,  heating  coils,  distributing 
ducts,  etc. 

Plan  number  two  is  given  to  illustrate 
the  possibilities  of  installing  an  inex- 
pensive but  efficient  ventilating  system  in 
a small  church.  Inasmuch  as  funds  were 
not  available  for  an  ideal  system  certain 
existing  conditions  within  the  building 
have  been  utilized  and  resort  has  been  had 
to  the  bringing  in  of  the  fresh  air  through 
inlets  under  the  pews,  the  three-foot  space 
under  the  auditorium  floor  being  used  as 
a plenum  chamber.  As  will  be  observed 
(see  plans,  pages  21  and  22,  and  sec- 
tions, page  23),  the  air  is  exhausted  at  the 
front  and  rear  of  the  auditorium.  A 
thorough  diffusion  of  the  air  throughout 
all  of  the  occupied  portion  of  the  room  is 
assured. 

In  this  case  it  has  been  arranged  to  use 
the  same  system  interchangeably  for  the 
Sunday  School  building.  As  will  be  noted, 
this  is  very  simply  done  in  this  case,  a 
single  chain  pull  being  used  to  accomplish 
this  change. 

As  a rule  such  a double  use  of  an  appa- 
ratus should  be  avoided.  It  can  seldom 
be  done  with  as  little  complication  as  is 
involved  in  this  case.  The  amount  of  com- 
plication usually  involved  seriously  limits 
the  efficiency  of  the  system  for  one  or 
another  portion  of  the  building,  and  care- 
lessness on  the  part  of  the  janitor  is  all 
that  is  additionally  needed  to  render  the 
plant  inefficient  for  one  room  or  the  other, 
and  sometimes  for  both. 

An  illustration  is  given  of  a method  of 
bringing  the  air  in  through  the  window 
sill  of  a church  so  that  it  will  become  dis- 
tributed over  the  heads  of  the  audience 


and  drawing  it  out  through  the  multiple 
openings  in  the  floor,  as  shown.  As  will 
be  noted  the  vent  openings  are  above  the 
floor  level  so  that  the  floor  sweepings 
can  not  fall  down  into  the  openings, 
and  overcoats  or  hats  may  not  be  laid 
over  the  openings.  This  arrangement 
also  prevents  the  moving  air  from  coming 
into  direct  contact  with  the  feet  of  the 
occupants  of  the  room.  Where  the  room 
below  the  auditorium  is  not  used  and  the 
space  is  without  openings  the  collecting 
ducts  shown  in  the  detail  sketch  may  be 
omitted  and  the  space  under  the  floor 
can  then  be  used  as  an  exhaust  chamber. 

The  engineer  is  frequently  asked  how 
much  a ventilating  system  for  a certain 
church  building  will  cost  before  a de- 
sign of  the  system  is  attempted.  The 
author  has  collected  data  on  twelve 
churches  to  determine  whether  a unit 
method  of  estimating  the  cost  of  a 
ventilating  system  can  be  found.  The 
method  of  apportioning  a certain  per- 
centage of  the  total  cost  of  the  structure 
is  of  little  value  in  any  building  but  espe- 
cially so  in  the  case  of  a church  inasmuch 
as  the  heating  and  ventilating  sys- 
tem would  cost  substantially  the  same 
whether  the  building  were  a frame  struc- 
ture or  a monumental  stone  structure,  so 
long  as  its  size  and  shape  were  approxi- 
mately the  same. 

In  the  churches  referred  to  this  per- 
centage of  cost  varies  from  3.3%  to 
9.4%.  On  the  basis  of  the  cubic  feet  of 
occupied  space,  this  calculation  including 
only  the  interior  space  and  neglecting  the 
space  within  the  towers,  lanterns,  unused 
attic  spaces,  etc.,  the  heating  and  ventilat- 
ing system  is  found  to  cost  from  one  cent 
to  two  and  one-half  cents  per  cubic  foot. 
Manifestly  a church  having  a very  high 
auditorium  has  a lower  cost  per  cubic 
foot.  For  a simple  system  of  ventilation  in 
the  average  church  one  and  one-half  cents 
per  cubic  foot  should  provide  for  a good 
ventilating  system.  Where  the  system 
is  complicated  or  the  construction  or 
arrangement  of  the  building  involves  com- 
plication this  figure  should  be  raised  to 
two  and  one-half  cents  per  cubic  foot.  The 
experience  and  judgment  of  the  consult- 
ing engineer  should  enable  him  to  set  this 
figure  with  reasonable  accuracy. 


31 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


On  the  basis  of  the  number  of  occu- 
pants provided  for  in  the  main  audi- 
torium and  in  the  main  room  of  the  Sun- 
day School  building,  a heating  and  ven- 
tilating system  will  be  found  to  cost  from 
$2.70  per  occupant  to  $5.50  per  occupant. 
A fair  average  will  be  found  to  be  from 
$3.25  to  $3.50  per  occupant,  this  figure  be- 
ing raised  or  lowered  in  proportion  to  the 
nature  and  arrangement  of  the  building 
and  the  resulting  complication  of  the 
heating  and  ventilating  system. 

The  table  also  gives  data  on  the  operat- 
ing costs  of  heating  and  ventilating  plants 
actually  installed  and  operated.  It  is  not 
possible  to  separate  the  cost  of  electric 
current  used  for  lighting  and  power,  both 
being  measured  on  the  same  meters  in 
most  cases. 

The  design  of  a heating  and  ventilating 
system  for  a church  building  has  been  re- 
garded as  a very  simple  matter.  The  diffi- 
culties of  this  work  have  not  been  appre- 
ciated and  the  result  has  been  that  this 
work  has  been  left  to  inexperienced  par- 
ties. It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that 
a great  many  failures  have  resulted  and 
that  a great  deal  of  criticism  has  been 
directed  against  the  ventilation  of  church 
buildings.  Such  work  should  be  left  to  ex- 
perienced engineers  who  will  undertake 
the  problem  without  preconceived  ideas 
or  prejudices,  or  without  the  influence  of 
an  interest  in  any  materials,  apparatus  or 
“system.’’  Many  failures  have  resulted 
from  the  advocacy  of  certain  “systems,” 
which  the  manufacturer  has  endeavored 
to  apply  to  all  types  of  buildings,  regard- 
less of  conditions  or  actual  needs  of  the 
building. 

Another  cause  for  many  failures  in  ven- 
tilating systems  is  the  desire  of  too  many 
committees,  and  of  too  many  architects 
also,  to  build  a beautiful  building,  using 
all  of  the  appropriation  for  space  or  orna- 
mental features,  forgetting  that  the  ex- 
tent of  the  enjoyment  to  be  had  in  the  use 
of  the  building  is  very  largely  in  propor- 
tion to  the  comfort  and  pleasure  found  in 
its  occupancy.  There  is  nothing  which 
contributes  more  to  this  pleasure  and 
comfort  than  a proper  heating  and  ventil- 
ating system.  The  logical  results  of  a 
cheaply  installed  ventilating  system  are 


dissatisfaction  and  the  ultimate  removal 
of  the  system. 

Mention  may  be  made  of  an  instance  in 
which  a church  seating  six  hundred  per- 
sons installed  a ventilating  system  costing 
$400.00.  The  only  possible  result  of  such 
an  installation  was  dissatisfaction  and 
abandonment.  This  system  is  now  being 
removed  and  a ventilating  system  costing 
$3,000.00  is  being  added  to  the  existing 
heating  system,  the  need  of  an  efficient 
ventilating  system  being  realized. 

In  another  case  the  church  first  in- 
stalled a furnace  system.  This  was  re- 
moved and  a cheap  steam  heating  and 
ventilating  system  was  installed,  the  ven- 
tilating features  of  which  were  later  re- 
moved. After  two  years’  experience  with 
the  resulting  system  it  has  been  decided 
to  install  an  efficient  ventilating  system 
at  a cost  of  $8,800.00,  or  approximately 
the  cost  of  the  two  systems  previously 
installed  and  abandoned. 

The  experiences  above  referred  to,  and 
others,  have  demonstrated  beyond  dis- 
pute that  an  auditorium  without  a ven- 
tilating system  will  give  discomfort  to  the 
audience  and  produce  headaches,  depres- 
sion, lassitude,  somnolence,  and  even  diz- 
ziness and  nausea.  Conversely,  the  opera- 
tion of  the  efficient  ventilating  system  re- 
places the  uninterested,  dull  and  inatten- 
tive audience  with  a comfortable,  alert 
and  attentive  audience,  having  receptive, 
responsive  and  retentive  minds,  thus  ex- 
periencing increased  profit  and  enjoy- 
ment of  the  building  and  of  the  services 
therein. 

The  investigations  of  the  New  York 
State  Ventilation  Commission  have  dem- 
onstrated positively  that  uncomfortable 
atmospheric  conditions  noticeably  and 
materially  lessen  the  interest  and  alert- 
ness of  the  individual. 

Assuredly  churches  are  built  not  alone 
as  monuments  of  architecture  but  for  the 
enjoyment  and  profit  of  the  people. 
Therefore  should  not  the  ventilating  sys- 
tem, which  has  so  much  to  do  with  the 
health,  comfort,  pleasure  and  profit  of  the 
church  attendants,  receive  at  least  equal 
consideration  with  the  stained  glass  win- 
dows, organ  and  architectural  features  of 
the  building? 


32 


CHURCH  VENTILATION  — BY  D.  D.  KIMBALL 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


<1 

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CUBIC  FOOT 

Boiler 

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Service 

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.0015 

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ANNUAL  COST 

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and 

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Service 

o 

o 

600 

i 

520  ' 

009 

009 

400  1 

009 

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Elec- 

tricity 

d 

o 

176.39 

98.00 

135.60 

75.00 

46.00 

OOOST 

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Fuel 

$424.35 

303.50 

323.00 

O 

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350.00 

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332.00 

COST  PER  CUBIC  FOOT 

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Plant 

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$.205 

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.256 

.194 

. 192 

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CO 

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00 

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.266 

PERCENTAGE 
CONTRACTS  BEAR 
TO  TOTAL  COST 

Elec- 

tric 

Sys- 

tern 

% 

1 

»o 

1.6 

1.5 

1.2 

- 

1.3 

- 

Heating 

and 

Venti- 

lating 

Plant 

% 

4.2 

6.9 

6.7 

6.2 

5.7 

8.1 

6.5 

d 

7.1 

3.3 

5.4 

6.8 

Build- 

ing 

% 

94.8 

9T6 

91.7 

92.3 

CO 

05 

90.7 

92 

9 06 

6 16 

96.7 

93.3 

92.2 

TOTAL  COST  OF  CONTRACTS 

Elec- 

tric 

Sys- 

tern 

o 

05 

lO 

875 

00 

Ttl 

00 

1000 

500 

1027 

775 

099 

1200 

Heating 

and 

Venti- 

lating 

Plant 

o 

CO 

CD 

<N 

4,000 

3,589 

00 

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tH 

00 

(M 

CO 

3,300 

4,249 

4,200 

5,662 

39,075 

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05 

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9.451 

Building 

$62,924 

00 

00 

CO 

CO 

IC 

66,360 

57,897 

41,220 

05,607 

44,503.50 

79 , 066 

1,200,000 

CO 

lO 

139 , 700 

! 

Cubic  Feet 
in 

Building 

306,160 

1 

000 ‘018 

208,470 

1 

341,168 

o 

00 

o 

o 

CO 

205,709 

315,000 

170,260 

475,240 

3,120,000 

301,200 

O 

o 

o 

UO 

Exterior 

Con- 

struc- 

tion 

Stone 

Stone 

Stone 

Stone 

Stone 

Stone 

Stone 

Brick 

Stone 

Marble  j 

Stone  1 

Stone 

Year 

Built 

1. 

1905 

1908 

1909 

1 1907 

1911 

I 1912 

1 

1906 

1913 

1911 

1912-14 

1903 

1904 

1 

Name  and  Location  of  Church 

Newton  Highlands  Congregational 
Church,  Newton  Highlands,  Mass. 

First  Baptist  Church,  Chelsea,  Mass. 

Central  Congregational  Church, 
Chelsea,  Mass 

First  Parish  Universalist  Church, 
Malden,  Mass 

First  Congregational  Church,  Stam- 
ford, Conn 

First  Parish  Church,  Braintree,  Mass. 

Melrose  First  Baptist  Church,  Mel- 
rose, Mass 

Church  of  the  Ascension,  New  York 
Citv 

First  Baptist  Church,  Montclair, 
N.  J 

St.  Joseph’s  Cathedral,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Unitarian  Church,  Leominster,  Mass. 

North  Presbyterian  Church,  Buffalo, 
N.  Y 

33 


SEE  PRECEDING  PAGES  FOR  REFERENCE. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


34 


..  HENRY  VAUGHAN,  ARCHITECT 


HOMELY  REMARKS  ON  CHURCH  FITMENTS 

By  Robert  Ellis  Jones,  S.  T.  D.,  Canon  of  the  Cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Divine 


The  legislative  rule  that  the  contents 
of  a bill  must  not  go  beyond  the 
implications  of  its  title  cannot  be 
extended  to  an  article  like  this. 
Questions  of  structure  will  intrude  them- 
selves upon  it.  It  is  enough  to  disclaim 
any  intention  to  dogmatize  upon  purely 
architectural  matters,  or  to  do  anything 
more  than  to  give  the  results  of  the  writ- 
er’s observation  of  church  utilities. 

The  article  also  confines  itself  to  eccle- 
siastical fitments,  to  those  things  that  per- 
tain distinctively  to  churches,  the  obvious 
utilities  necessary  to  any  public  building 
will  be  taken  for  granted,  and  the  com- 
plex arrangements  of  a parish  house  will 
not  be  touched  upon  at  all,  the  domestic 
needs  of  parishes  differ  widely,  and  pro- 
vision for  them  is  germane  to  secular 
work. 

It  may  save  many  qualifications  to  say 
that  a good  sized  town  church,  one  hold- 
ing from  six  to  eight  hundred,  is  chiefly 
held  in  mind.  Cathedrals  will  always  be 
few,  churches  holding  twelve  hundred 
people  not  common,  and  the  village 
church,  interesting  as  it  is,  full  of  pic- 
turesque possibilities,  ought  not  to  be 
built  unless  special  circumstances  make  it 
certain  that  the  luxury  can  be  afforded — 
and  maintained.  No  church  should  be 
built  that  cannot  under  normal  circum- 
stances maintain  its  fixed  charges.  Most 
“lovely  little  churches”  must  starve  their 
parson.  A church  should  be  large  enough 
to  make  the  per  capita  fixed  charge  for 
maintenance  moderate  and  easily  car- 
ried. The  fixed  charges  for  clerical  sal- 
aries, music,  sexton,  in  two  churches  hold- 
ing four  hundred  and  seven  hundred  re- 
spectively are  substantially  the  same.  The 
only  appreciable  difference  is  in  the  cost 
of  heating  and  lighting.  The  size  of 
church  dictated  by  a rational  economy  is 
large  enough  to  allow  of  considerable 
architectural  dignity,  and  this  article  will 
refrain  from  darting  from  minister  to 
chapel  and  confine  itself  to  the  average 


town  church  holding  from  six  to  eight 
hundred. 

Approaches  — Churches  should  be 
placed  as  low  as  possible  in  order  to  re- 
duce the  number  of  the  entrance  steps. 
An  unbroken  run  of  ten  or  a dozen  front 
steps  is  unfortunate  and  dangerous.  Such 
a run  is  inconvenient  for  old  or  infirm 
persons,  almost  impossible  at  funerals 
when  heavy  caskets  have  to  be  carried  in, 
and  in  winter  liable  to  be  icy,  men- 
acing old  and  young,  living  and  dead, 
with  entire  impartiality.  When  a long 
run  is  unavoidable,  it  should  be  broken  by 
broad  platforms.  The  usual  reason  for 
raising  the  floor  level  is  the  desire  to  pro- 
vide well  lighted  Sunday  School  rooms 
and  vestries  in  the  basement.  Nothing  is 
more  fatal  to  a Sunday  School.  I have 
seen  basements  upon  which  money  had 
been  lavished  without  stint  in  the  effort 
to  prove  that  a Sunday  School  can  thrive 
below  ground,  but  all  alike  were  failures, 
and  are  today  replaced  by  parish  houses. 
Choir  vestries  are  more  at  home  in  base- 
ments, but  they  are  usually  connected 
with  the  church  above  by  narrow  pas- 
sages and  winding  stairs,  almost  always 
too  steep.  It  is  ample  proof  that  the  aver- 
age choir-boy  has  not  “a  one-track  mind,” 
that  he  can  manage  the  unaccustomed 
skirt  of  his  cassock,  sing  “Onward,  Chris- 
tian Soldiers!”  and  negotiate  narrow 
“winders”  all  at  the  same  time.  It  is  un- 
wise to  purchase  the  doubtful  advantages 
of  high  basements  at  the  cost  of  incon- 
venience and  danger  to  a multitude  of 
worshippers. 

Vestibules  — Western  vestibules,  either 
structural  or  obtained  by  the  use  of 
screens  at  the  end  of  the  nave,  are  abso- 
lutely necessary.  A western  gallery,  roof- 
ing a screened  narthex,  is  useful  for  many 
purposes.  It  may  be  said  in  passing  that 
this  is  the  only  position  where  a gallery 
is  either  useful  or  tolerable.  Funeral  and 
wedding  parties  need  a place  where  they 
may  form  and  wait  in  privacy.  This  se- 


35 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


elusion  should  be  possible  without  stop- 
ping the  entrance  of  the  congregation. 
Such  a narthex  can  be  entered  directly 
by  the  central  door  of  the  nave,  leaving 
the  aisle  doors  for  the  ingress  of  the 
people. 

A signal  from  the  west  door  should  be 
provided  to  forestall  the  excited  rush  of 
the  verger  between  the  vestibule  and  the 
clergy  room  when  all  is  ready. 

The  Font  — The  font  is  many  times 
placed  near  the  west  door  or  in  one  of  the 
aisles  near  its  western  end.  This  is  sym- 
bolically correct.  The  entrances  to  the 
church  below  and  the  church  above  are 
kept  together.  But  practically  it  is  wrong. 
A western  position  is  seldom  a good  one. 
At  the  majority  of  the  services  the  people 
turn  their  backs  upon  the  font  and  it  is 
forgotten.  A special  chamber,  alcove,  or 
other  position  indicated  by  structure  or 
decoration,  near  the  chancel  is  preferable. 
The  font  if  raised  should  have  at  the  level 
of  the  highest  step  a platform  two  feet 
by  three  upon  which  the  priest  can  stand 
securely  while  performing  the  baptism. 
This  standing  place  should  be  upon  the 
right  side  of  the  font  so  as  to  bring  the 
child  near  the  bowl  on  the  priest’s  left 
as  he  stands  facing  west.  The  effort 
to  stand  upon  a narrow  step  is  as  distract- 
ing to  the  ofRciant  as  it  is  dangerous 
to  the  child.  A small  book  rest  should  be 
provided  near  by  upon  which  to  place  the 
prayer  book  during  the  act  of  baptism. 
Often  there  is  no  place  to  rest  the  book 
except  the  margin  of  the  font,  where  it 
as  well  as  the  child  is  affused. 

A font  may  easily  be  too  monumental, 
making  it  difficult  to  reach  over  into  its 
capacious  depths  to  obtain  the  little  water 
needed.  Low  prayer  desks  for  the  par- 
ents and  sponsors  are  of  great  conve- 
nience. When  not  in  use  they  may  serve 
to  give  the  font  a reverent  protection.  A 
drain  must  of  course  be  provided.  The 
bowl  should  be  waterproofed  in  some 
suitable  way.  Otherwise  dust  and  grime 
adhere  to  the  damp  stone. 

Seating  — Practice  as  to  the  seating  of 
churches  is  drifting  from  pews  to  chairs, 
with  favorable  results.  One  of  the  best 
is  that  a chair  defeats  selfish  efforts  to 
occupy  three  sittings  at  once,  and  another 
advantage  is  that  upon  occasion  read- 


justments to  suit  the  circumstances 
can  easily  be  made.  It  is  sometimes 
desirable  to  make  the  middle  aisle  wider 
than  usual,  as  at  funerals  or  at  func- 
tions employing  a numerous  procession, 
A useful  average  width  for  a middle 
aisle  is  five  feet,  though  this  is  some- 
times scanty,  when  a casket  with 
bearers  on  each  side  must  be  pro- 
vided for.  The  tendency  of  chairs  to 
fall  into  irregularity  and  disorder  can  be 
overcome  by  connecting  groups  of  three 
or  four  by  means  of  a strip  of  wood  under 
the  seat.  In  this  way  sufficient  elbow 
room  for  each  person  can  be  assured. 
Twenty-two  inches  per  person  is  the  least 
comfortable  allowance.  The  eighteen-inch 
allotment  used  by  architects  trying  to 
show  a grasping  committee  how  much 
they  are  getting  at  a low  cost  is  mislead- 
ing. In  this  detail  both  parties  seem  to 
be  ‘‘given  over  to  strong  delusion  that 
they  should  believe  a lie.” 

The  spacing  of  the  rows  is  important. 
They  must  be  sufficiently  distant  to  allow 
of  comfortable  kneeling,  for  which  fully 
thirty-six  inches  is  required.  Where 
kneeling  is  not  practiced  thirty  inches 
may  suffice.  In  the  liturgical  churches  a 
spacing  of  thirty-three  inches  is  very 
common,  but  it  is  not  enough,  since  kneel- 
ing becomes  a process  of  wedging  oneself 
into  too  snug  a space.  A kneeler  hinged 
to  a chair  in  front  of  the  worshipper  sel- 
dom projects  backward  sufficiently  to 
permit  an  ordinarily  stout  adult  to  use  it. 
A loose  pad  of  felt  that  can  be  placed  in 
any  position  is  by  far  the  best  kneeler. 
Two  inches  is  the  least  thickness,  but  four 
inches  is  much  better.  Kneeling  is  ap- 
parently a disused  exercise — impossible 
unless  all  the  accessories  favor  and  assist 
it.  It  must  be  possible  for  each  person  to 
put  his  feet  under  his  own  chair.  Church 
chairs  are  often  provided  with  slats  or 
racks  underneath  the  seats  to  receive 
hats  or  kneeling  pads  when  not  in  use.  If 
these  racks  have  the  full  depth  of  the  seat 
the  chairs  must  be  spaced  three  feet  six 
inches  apart  or  kneeling  is  penalized.  A 
rack  half  the  depth  of  the  seat  serves  all 
purposes.  Pockets  for  prayer  books,  etc,, 
should  be  attached  to  the  backs  of  the 
chairs.  The  chair  back  should  be  capped 
with  a flat  rail  to  serve  the  worshipper’s 


36 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


convenience.  The  chair  should  be  of  good 
size,  strong  and  comfortably  propor- 
tioned. The  rush  bottomed  church  chair 
of  the  European  pattern  is  frail  and  un- 
comfortable— quite  inadequate  for  a stout 
person.  It  is  difficult  but  not  impossible 
to  find  a well-designed  ready-made 
church  chair,  but  any  good  architect  can 
design  one. 

The  Pulpit  — Conditions  vary  so  widely 
that  little  can  be  said  dogmatically  about 
pulpits.  Often  they  are  made  inconve- 
niently deep  and  narrow,  so  that  the 
preacher  seems  immersed  in  their  tub-like 
depths,  confirming  Daniel  Webster’s  opin- 
ion that  its  survival  after  centuries  of 
proclamation  from  tub  pulpits  is  ample 
proof  of  the  truth  of  the  Gospel.  In  a mon- 
umental pulpit  the  enclosing  front  must  be 
high  relatively  to  the  speaker’s  stature, 
but  the  average  parish  church  is  not  large 
enough  to  call  for  a monumental  struc- 
ture. The  indication  is  for  a pulpit  of  such 
moderate  scale  that  its  front  may  be  quite 
low,  so  that  the  preacher  cannot  reach  or 
grasp  it  with  his  hands  to  pound  upon 
it,  or  to  swing  his  body  backward  and  for- 
ward from  its  anchorage,  from  sheer 
nervousness  apropos  of  nothing.  An  emi- 
nent authority  recommends  a high  pulpit 
as  preventing  a nervous  ^‘dangling”  of 
the  hands.  There  is  no  arrangement  cer- 
tain to  defeat  the  eccentric  motions  of 
the  clergy.  It  is  perhaps  a choice  between 
‘‘dangling”  and  “see-sawing.”  The  manu- 
script desk  should  be  adjustable  as  to 
height  and  slope  and  should  carry  a con- 
cealed light.  Sounding  boards  are  a sore 
subject.  No  sounding  board  has  ever 
been  made  which  is  at  once  architectur- 
ally beautiful  and  acoustically  successful. 
The  only  counsel  is  to  get  along  without 
one  if  possible. 

The  Lectern  — The  lectern  should  com- 
ply not  only  with  the  scale  of  the  church, 
but  with  its  acoustical  requirements  and 
should  have  regard  to  the  limitations  of 
human  stature.  A distinguished  archi- 
tect whose  beautiful  lectern  was  impos- 
sibly high  refused  to  allow  the  use  of  a 
reader’s  platform  behind  it.  The  reader 
must  be  lifted  above  the  book  desk  to  a 
height  that  shall  allow  his  face  to  be  seen, 
for  two  reasons.  First,  we  depend  upon 
play  of  feature  as  well  as  upon  hearing 


for  a full  understanding  of  the  spoken 
word.  We  would  not  tolerate  an  invisible 
preacher,  much  less  should  we  endure 
an  invisible  reader  of  the  Word  of  God. 
Next,  the  reader’s  voice  must  not  be 
blocked  or  deflected.  It  must  have  free 
diffusion  if  it  is  to  “carry”  any  distance. 
It  is  significant  that  in  the  churches  of  the 
Protestant  denominations  which  are  not 
under  the  influence  of  tradition,  the  mon- 
umental, all-concealing  lectern  is  un- 
known, while  the  reading  of  the  Scrip- 
tures reaches  a high  degree  of  excellence. 
The  most  efficient  obstacle  to  reach  of 
tone  is  the  tall  double  lectern  of  the 
monastic  music-desk  type,  yielding  two 
sides  pitched  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  de- 
grees, carrying  the  Old  Testament  on  one 
side  and  the  New  Testament  on  the  other. 
These  desks  were  intended  to  serve  a num- 
ber of  singers  standing  around  them  look- 
ing upward  to  the  steep-sloped  pages  of 
the  illuminated  Psalter.  Obviously  the 
practicable  lectern  will  have  but  a mod- 
erate slope.  Otherwise  the  top  and  bot- 
tom of  the  page  cannot  be  read  with  the 
same  eye  focus. 

Choir  Stalls  — Choir  stalls  should  con- 
form to  utilitarian  requirements  as  to  the 
height  of  the  book  desks,  the  depth  of 
the  seats,  slope  of  the  backs  and  the  kneel- 
ers.  Ornamentation  should  not  be  allowed 
to  interfere  with  these  primary  require- 
ments. The  convenience  of  the  singers 
contributes  immensely  to  the  reposeful- 
ness and  reverence  of  the  service.  To 
over-emphasize  the  stalls  detracts  from 
the  dignity  of  the  altar.  Elaborate  carv- 
ing may  well  be  confined  to  the  canopies 
of  the  back  row  of  stalls.  It  is  a matter 
of  congratulation  that  the  best  current 
work  shows  a disuse  of  the  fussy  poppy- 
heads  that  a little  while  ago  were  thought 
to  be  essential.  Modern  Gothic  is  now 
less  spiky  than  it  used  to  be.  The  proper 
height  for  the  book  desks  is  that  which 
brings  the  books  to  a convenient  height 
when  the  choir  is  kneeling.  It  is  very 
difficult  to  strike  a successful  average  be- 
tween a kneeling  and  a standing  height. 
The  requirements  of  kneeling  should  rule ; 
in  standing  the  book  may  be  held  in  the 
hand.  It  is  a very  awkward  mistake  to 
give  the  book  desk  an  acute  pitch.  It 
should  be  rather  flat,  rising  about  three 


37 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


inches  in  its  twelve  inches  of  width.  One 
of  the  main  purposes  of  the  book  desk  is 
to  hold  in  readiness  and  in  plain  sight  the 
music  next  to  be  used,  quite  impossible 
with  a high-pitched  desk.  Ample  pockets 
should  be  provided  below  the  desks.^  The 
number  of  books  used  by  a choir  in  the 
course  of  a service  is  not  imagined  by 
most  people.  A place  for  everything  is 
the  price  of  order  and  reverence. 

In  the  interests  of  scale,  choir  stalls  are 
often  made  too  low  and  small — mere 
pews,  overlooking  one  of  the  main  pur- 
poses of  choir  stalls — partially  to  conceal 
the  choristers,  (the  very  reverse  of  the 
principle  obtaining  as  to  the  pulpit)  mak- 
ing their  necessary  movements  unobtru- 
sive. Rows  of  heads  and  shoulders  should 
be  seen — not  the  figure  from  the  hips  up. 
The  rule  holds  for  choir  and  clergy  that 
when  the  desks  at  which  they  kneel  are 
low  enough  to  support  their  elbows  they 
are  too  low.  Such  desks  put  a premium 
on  undignified  “hunching.” 

The  Organ  and  Console  — Little  need  be 
said  about  the  organ  except  that  it  should 
not  be  smothered  in  a scanty  chamber 
from  which  it  cannot  speak  out.  With  a 
given  number  of  stops  the  best  result  ob- 
tains when  the  pipes  have  ample  space 
above  and  around  them  for  the  diffusion 
of  sound.  To  lose  a third  of  the  effect- 
iveness of  an  expensive  instrument  by 
smothering  it  is  not  intelligent  proced- 
ure. Usually  the  organ  builder  is  not  con- 
sulted until  the  organ  coop  is  finished. 

The  console  should  not  be  placed  in  the 
choir  proper.  It  is  a part  of  the  machin- 
ery. It  is  a principle  that  the  mechanism 
of  worship  should  be  concealed.  The  con- 
sole is  often  incorporated  in  the  stall- 
work  or  placed  on  the  presbytery  (i.  e. 
the  space  between  the  choir  stalls  and  the 
chancel  rail),  where  it  sometimes  vies 
with  the  altar  in  size  and  prominence. 
These  positions  are  assigned  in  the  in- 
terests of  the  contiguity  of  choir  and  or- 
ganist, and  to  allow  the  latter  to  “con- 
duct,” that  is,  to  wave  one  hand  above  his 
head  while  playing  with  his  other  mem- 
bers, and  swaying  all  over,  to  the  utter 
destruction  of  devotional  repose.  ^ Any 
musical  advantage  that  defeats  religious 
impressiveness  must  be  sacrificed.  Many 


chancels  are  so  circumscribed  that  it  is 
difficult  to  comply  with  ideal  require- 
ments, but  if  the  latter  are  held  in  mind 
during  the  planning  of  a church  they  can 
usually  be  met.  The  console  can  be  lo- 
cated in  a chamber  behind  the  singers, 
or  in  a gallery  above  their  heads.  The 
use  of  mirrors  solves  many  problems.  In 
the  new  St.  Thomas  Church  both  contigu- 
ity and  concealment  have  been  secured. 
Unaccompanied  singing  does  require 
“conducting.”  In  such  cases  the  organist 
should  take  place  as  a member  of  the 
choir  and  guide  it  as  quietly  as  may  be. 

The  Presbytery  — By  “presbytery”  is 
meant  the  space,  usually  elevated  above 
the  choir  ffoor,  between  the  choir  stalls 
and  the  chancel  rail.  In  English  cathe- 
drals the  presbytery  sometimes  extends 
two  or  three  bays,  but  in  our  churches  it 
is  contracted  and  disappears  as  a sep- 
arate division.  It  was  anciently  occupied 
by  the  clergy  not  actively  engaged  in  the 
service.  Now  it  is  important  as  the 
space  wherein  the  laity  approach  the 
the  chancel  rails  during  celebrations, 
where  wedding  parties  stand  and  where 
confirmation  and  ordination  are  admin- 
istered. Space  and  convenience  are  ob- 
viously demanded.  Yet  there  is  no  part 
of  the  church  so  completely  unconsidered. 
It  frequently  happens  that  barely  three 
feet  intervene  between  the  choir  stalls 
and  the  chancel  rail.  Communicants  ap- 
proach, divide  and  fill  the  rail  to  its  ends, 
then  return  to  the  centre  and  plow 
through  the  waiting  crowd  while  another 
set  files  into  the  pockets.  The  level  space 
of  the  presbytery  should  be  wide  enough 
for  one  row  of  people  to  kneel  and  for 
another  row  to  stand  behind  them,  or,  to 
put  it  otherwise,  wide  enough  for  kneel- 
ing and  for  passage.  Six  feet  of  clear 
space  is  sufficient.  An  architect  exclaims, 
“That  means  six  feet  of  foundations, 
walls,  floor  and  roofing.”  It  does,  but  the 
miserable  confusion  seen  in  most  large 
churches  on  the  first  Sunday  of  the  month 
should  be  decisive  as  to  the  wisdom  of  the 
expenditure.  The  presbytery  should  al- 
ways be  provided  at  the  north  and  south 
ends  with  exits,  either  into  the  choir 
aisles  or  into  passages  otherwise  ar- 
ranged for,  sometimes  through  the  choir 
or  clergy  vestries.  Central  approach  and 


38 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


terminal  discharge  are  obvious  requisites 
of  order. 

The  Sanctuary  — The  sanctuary  should 
be  raised  above  the  presbytery  by  not 
more  than  one  step,  upon  which,  with  the 
intervention  of  a cushion,  the  people  may 
kneel.  There  should  not  be  a series  of 
steps  leading  up  to  the  level  of  the  sanc- 
tuary. Kneeling  upon  the  topmost  of  a 
flight  of  steps  is  an  impossible  perform- 
ance for  most  people.  The  kneeler  for  the 
laity  should  always  be  at  the  same  level 
as  that  in  which  the  priest  stands.  To 
cause  the  people  to  kneel  upon  a step  six 
inches  lower  than  the  sanctuary  floor 
necessitates  a wearying  and  awkward 
bending  over  during  the  administration 
of  the  sacrament. 

Chancel  rails  are  an  utilitarian  neces- 
sity and  should  not  be  emphasized.  Some 
architects  say  they  are  needless,  but  cleri- 
cal experience  dissents.  The  laity,  the 
old,  stout  and  feeble,  protest  against  their 
absence.  The  chancel  rail  should  have 
that  height  which  allows  the  chalice 
to  be  passed  without  danger  to  a short 
person  kneeling  on  the  other  side  of  the 
rail.  Twenty  or  twenty-two  inches  is  a 
convenient  height,  though  twenty-four 
inches  is  practicable  if  the  people  kneel  on 
the  priest’s  level.  If  they  kneel  six  inches 
lower  the  twenty-four  inches  of  the  rail’s 
height  become  thirty,  and  the  passage  of 
the  chalice  becomes  impossible.  For  con- 
venience in  the  administration  of  the  ele- 
ments chancel  rails  should  also  be  narrow. 
The  twelve-inch  wide  caps  of  the  marble 
walls  (quite  too  high)  which  some  archi- 
tects build  across  the  sanctuary  are  im- 
mensely awkward.  The  communicants’ 
kneeling  desks,  which  are  now  displacing 
rails,  are  welcome  innovations,  provided 
they  also  be  not  made  too  high  and 
broad. 

The  Altar  — Since  there  is  abundant 
guidance  as  to  this  central,  all-important 
fitment,  a few  remarks  about  the  altar 
■ will  suffice.  An  extreme  elevation  of  the 
altar  is  to  be  avoided,  since  many  steps 
mean  danger  and  inconvenience  for  feeble 
or  dim-sighted  clergymen.  An  altar  not 
less  than  three  feet  three  inches  high  is 
more  convenient  for  the  celebrant  than  a 
lower  one.  The  foot  pace  upon  which  the 
priest  stands  should  not  be  less  than  three 


feet  wide.  The  altar,  unless  it  be  a small 
one  in  a chapel,  should  be  set  out  from  the 
east  wall  or  reredos  at  least  twenty  inches 
to  allow  of  reaching  the  ornaments  on  the 
retable  without  making  the  altar  a 
mounting  block. 

The  gratifying  improvement  in  church 
architecture  during  the  last  twenty-five 
years  can  best  be  measured  by  an  inspec- 
tion of  the  volume  containing  the  fifty  or 
more  competitive  designs  for  the  Cathe- 
dral of  St.  John  the  Divine.  A few  plans 
combined  originality  and  scholarship,  but 
most  of  them  exhibited  either  wild  eccen- 
tricity or  lifeless  correctness,  while  many 
were  conceived  in  complete  unconscious- 
ness of  the  most  elementary  architec- 
tural canons;  there  were  mosques  and 
meeting-houses  (with  Anglican  trim- 
mings) but  in  nearly  all  alike  the  pro- 
cedure of  design  must  have  been  that  of 
taking  the  architect’s  ideal  of  a parish 
church  and  inflating  it  to  a cathedral  size, 
with  the  usual  disastrous  results  of 
awkwardness  and  poverty  of  detail;  a 
more  triumphant  demonstration  of  “how 
not  to  do  it”  cannot  be  imagined.  The 
collection,  as  a whole,  was  the  work  of 
untrained  men,  some  of  them  obviously 
“unrepentant  carpenters,”  their  notions 
of  cathedral  scale  and  function  would 
have  been  laughable  had  they  not  been 
tragic.  The  most  prominent  advocate 
of  the  cathedral  movement  confessed 
that  he  rose  from  his  first  inspec- 
tion of  the  designs  appalled,  humiliated 
and  convinced  that  the  project  had  been 
launched  too  soon;  neither  the  architects 
nor  the  public  were  prepared  for  it.  The 
public’s  approval  was  enthusiastically 
bestowed  upon  a fantastic  design  as  lack- 
ing in  repose  as  in  sound  engineering. 
Profession,  parsons  and  public  were  ob^- 
viously  wandering  in  a vain  shadow. 

Today  no  competition  would  be  neces- 
sary; the  project  could  be  safely  com- 
mitted to  any  one  of  a number  of  archi- 
tects, whose  spirited  and  noble  work 
adorns  our  land.  It  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  we  have  some  churches  which 
would  have  been  considered  great  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  Nearly  every  lay- 
man holds  some  practitioner,  usually  the 
designer  of  his  parish  church,  to  be  “the 
greatest  church  architect  in  America,’/ 


39 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


and  behind  these  masters  there  is  an 
army  of  competent  young  men  who  are 
filling  the  land  with  excellent  work.  The 
Chicago  man’s  prophecy,  uttered  a quar- 
ter of  a century  ago  regarding  his  be- 
loved city,  could  at  that  time  have  been 
applied  to  America  at  large  and  to  its 
architectural  capacity.  The  prophetic 
soul  aforesaid,  with  proud  humility,  de- 
clared “Chicago  hasn’t  reached  culture 
yet,  but  when  she  does,  she’ll  make  it 
hum.’" 

We  are  now  safe  in  the  hands  of  our 
architects,  and  are  beginning  not  to  direct 
them  as  jauntily  as  we  did  some  years 
ago.  The  “cultivated  amateur”  is  no 
longer  the  final  arbiter  and  the  parson’s 
pride  of  practicality  gives  him  authority 
only  on  such  matters  as  the  subjects  of 
these  “Remarks.”  He  can  only  hope  to 
contribute  well  defined  utilitarian  prin- 
ciples. Noble  church  building  is  the  re- 
sult of  the  fusion  of  artistry,  engineering 
and  utility;  neither  can  be  safely  sacri- 
ficed; a successful  church  is  one  which  is 
an  outgrowth  of  the  needs  of  worship. 
Nothing  was  more  admirably  and  rig- 
orously suited  to  its  purposes  than  the 
mediaeval  cathedral  to  the  requirements 
of  Roman  Catholic  ritual.  Gothic  theory 


has  to  do  with  much  more  than  pointed 
arches.  One  of  the  fundamental  canons 
was  conformance  to  present  needs.  The 
Gothic  spirit  demands  that  we  discard 
tradition  and  precedent  where  they  con- 
flict with  the  needs  of  the  present.  It 
is  only  by  endeavoring  to  meet  those  de- 
mands that  our  architecture  will  achieve 
that  differentiation  which  results  in 
vitality.  We  are  all  weary  of  assertions 
that  this  or  that  “is  the  only  religious 
style,”  and  are  ill  at  ease  in  churches 
whose  architecture  is  incongruous  with 
the  worship  conducted  therein  and  dis- 
cordant with  the  traditions  of  the  wor- 
shipping body.  There  is  a true  sense  in 
which  the  Colonial  meeting-house,  occu- 
pied by  non-liturgical  congregations,  is 
far  more  “Gothic”  than  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury near-cathedral  which  sometimes  re- 
places the  meeting-house ; any  vital  archi- 
tecture is  an  outgrowth  of  the  needs  and 
personality  of  its  builders;  this  corre- 
spondence of  the  inner  and  outer  is  per- 
haps the  deepest  Gothic  principle  of  all. 
The  American  practitioner  now  combines 
ample  knowledge  of  the  past  with  a recog- 
nition of  present  needs,  as  artist,  engineer 
and  ecclesiologist  he  is  a rapidly  growing 
man.  The  future  of  our  church  archi- 
tecture is  full  of  hope  and  promise. 


40 


STALL  ENDS,  CALVARY  CHURCH,  PITTSBURGH,  PA. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


MODERN  METHODS  OF  CHURCH  ILLUMINATION 

By  F.  A.  PATTISON,  A.I.E.E.,  A.S.M.E.,  I.E.S. 


The  artificial  illumination  of  a 
church  is  a problem  for  which  it  is 
often  very  difficult  to  find  a satis- 
factory solution.  There  are  two 
elements  which  must  be  most  carefully 
considered  in  connection  with  the  lighting 
of  any  building,  viz.,  the  use  for  which  the 
structure  is  erected  and  the  Architect’s 
motive  in  his  design.  These  two  consider- 
ations combine  to  create  the  atmosphere 
which  at  all  hazard  must  be  maintained. 
Any  equipment  which  lacks  the  proper 
preservation  and  perpetuation  of  this 
atmosphere  spells  failure  no  matter  how 
elaborate  or  exquisite  in  detail  the  vari- 
ous elements  of  the  illumination  may  be. 
The  lighting  of  a church  must  be  sufficient 
to  properly  illuminate  and  if  fixtures  are 
used  they  must  carry  out  the  symbolism 
and  never  be  obtrusive  in  the  sense  of 
introducing  a jarring  note  either  to  the 
architecture  or  the  comfort  and  mental 
attitude  of  the  worshippers. 

The  earliest  examples  of  the  artificial 
illumination  being  introduced  in  harmony 
with  the  building  are  seen  in  the  chan- 
deliers often  called  crowns.  In  the  Gothic 
churches  these  were  made  very  elaborate 
and  capable  of  providing  for  a great 
many  candles.  Perhaps  the  crowns  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  Hildesheim  and  Rheims 
are  as  typical  of  this  early  practice  as 
any  which  could  be  cited.  These  were 
made  in  various  metals  and  also  in  wood. 
All  metals  are  still  used  and  even  at  the 
present  time,  wood  is  sometimes  used,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  fixtures  of  the  Broad- 
way Tabernacle  in  New  York  City.  The 
use  of  the  candles  in  the  earliest  times  had 
the  advantage  of  a unit  whose  intrinsic 
brilliancy  was  very  low  and,  therefore, 
could  be  used  with  much  better  effect 
than  modern  illuminants  utilized  in  the 
same  way.  The  largest  crown  was  cus- 
tomarily hung  from  the  arches  of  the 
nave  and  its  size,  decoration,  and  sym- 
bolism was  the  subject  of  much  study. " As 
a result  it  became  an  integral  part  of  the 


edifice  and  fulfilled  perfectly  the  function 
for  which  it  was  installed.  Hence  the 
satisfaction  both  visual  and  spiritual  as 
there  was  harmony  and  the  atmosphere 
to  produce  the  proper  effect.  As  time 
went  on,  the  worshippers  took  more  of  a 
part  in  the  services  until  at  the  present 
time  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  be  able 
to  read.  Therefore  it  is  imperative  to  pro- 
vide proper  illumination  to  enable  them 
to  do  this. 

In  the  early  days  the  candle  was  the 
only  illuminant.  This  was  followed  by  oil 
lamps  and  now  we  have  gas  and  several 
types  of  electric  lamps.  The  cleanliness, 
ease  of  locating  at  any  desired  point, 
capability  of  subdivision  and  shaping, 
and  simplicity  of  control  have  led  to  the 
almost  universal  adoption  of  the  electric 
light  for  modern  church  buildings.  Even 
the  candle  tip  in  the  altar  candles  is  be- 
ing replaced  by  the  filament  of  the  electric 
globe. 

The  variation  in  size,  design,  and  char- 
acter of  buildings  classified  as  churches, 
is  such  that  it  is  not  possible  to  describe 
details  so  as  to  apply  to  all.  But  in  the 
illumination  of  the  small  country  church, 
the  pretentious  city  church,  and  the  cathe- 
dral, regardless  of  the  architecture,  there 
are  certain  requirements  common  to  all 
which  can  be  complied  with  no  matter 
how  simply  or  elaborately  the  details  are 
carried  out.  They  all  have  an  approach, 
exterior,  entrances,  space  for  congrega- 
tion, chancel,  choir,  windows  and  rooms 
not  in  the  church  space  proper.  These 
are  the  parts  which  have  to  be  lighted. 
The  first  consideration  is  the  amount  of 
light  necessary  to  obtain  proper  illumi- 
nation. If  the  public  li8:hts  in  the  street 
do  not  give  proper  light,  the  approach 
should  be  illuminated  with  gas  or  incan- 
descent lamps.  It  should  not  be  brilliantly 
illuminated.  One  tenth  foot  candles  is 
ample.  There  is  no  excuse  for  any  lights 
on  the  exterior  of  the  building  except  at 
the  entrances,  a carefully  screened  re- 


41 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


ST.  PAUL’S  CATHEDRAL,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 

(For  additional  illustrations  of  this  subject  see  index) 


42 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


fleeter  for  the  bulletin  board  and  possibly 
an  illuminated  cross  on  the  steeple.  Any 
bare  lamps  strung  on  the  outside  or  over 
the  doors  not  only  detracts  from  the 
architecture  but  produces  a disagreeable 
glare  and  therefore  offends  everyone  en- 
tering the  edifice. 

Illumination  is  measured  by  the  candle 
foot.  This  is  the  illumination  produced 
on  a surface  one  foot  distant  by  a source 
of  one  candle  power,  the  rays  falling  nor- 
mally on  the  surface.  The  proper  illumi- 
nation, in  the  portion  of  the  church  enu- 
merated above,  is  as  follows  in  foot 
candles : 


Entrances 5 

Congregation  space 2-3 

Choir 1-2 

Chancel  2-3 

Windows 5 

General  Rooms 1-2 


In  arriving  at  this  result  the  light  re- 
flected by  the  various  surfaces,  such  as 
ceiling,  walls,  etc.,  and  the  light  which  will 
be  absorbed  by  the  various  shades  must 
be  given  very  careful  consideration. 

The  percentage  of  light  reflected  from 
various  surfaces  with  the  authorities  is 
as  follows : 


Black  velvet  (Sumptner) 0.4 

Deep  Chocolate  (Sumptner)  . . . 4.0 

Black  paper  (Rood  & Tufts)  ...  4.5 

Dark  Blue  (Tufts) 6.5 

Dark  Green  (Tufts) 10.1 

Dark  Brown  (Sumptner) 13.0 

Bright  Red  (Tufts) 16.2 

Dirty  Yellow  (Sumptner) 20.0 

White  Sandstone  (O’Connor)  . . 24.0 

Gray  paper  (Tufts) 50.0 

Light  colored  wood  (Sumptner)  50.0 
Whitewashed  ceiling  (Harrison)  80.0 

Dead  White  (Hallock) 80.0 

White  cardboard  (Tufts) 92.3 


The  percentage  of  light  absorbed  by 
various  shades  with  the  authorities  is  as 
follows: 


Clear  glass  (O’Connor) 6.0 

Clear  glass  engraved  (O’Connor)  40.0 

Frosted  glass  (Lewes) 11.2 

Ground  glass  (O’Connor) 29.5 

Alabaster  glass  (Palaz) 15.0 

Opal  glass  (Palaz) 20.0 

Milky  Opal  (Palaz) 30.-60. 

Opal  glass  colored  (O’Connor)  . . 64.0 


The  use  of  reflectors  has  become  quite 
general  but  the  data  on  coefficients  of  re- 
flection varies  as  may  be  seen  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  by  Bell: 


Highly  polished  silver 92 

Mirrors  silvered  on  surface 70-.85 

Highly  polished  brass 70-.75 

Highly  polished  copper 60-.70 

Highly  polished  steel -60 

Speculum  metal 60-.80 

Polished  gold 50-.55 

Burnished  copper 40-.50 


Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  re- 
gard to  the  brilliancy  of  the  source  of 
light.  The  eye  should  never  be  forced  to 
look  at  a source  whose  intrinsic  brilliancy 
exceeds  5 candle  power  per  square  inch. 
The  intrinsic  brilliancy  of  the  various 
sources  of  light  is  shown  in  the  following 
table : 

Candle-Power  Per 


Square  Inch 

Moore  tube 0.3-  1.75 

Frosted  Incandescent 2-  5 

Candle  3-  4 

Gas  flame 3-  8 

Oil  lamp 3-  8 

Cooper  Hewitt  lamp 17 

Welsbach  gas  mantle 20-  50 

Acetylene 75-  100 

Enclosed  A.C.  arc 75-  200 

Enclosed  D.C.  arc 100-  500 

Incandescent  lamps: 

Carbon  3.5  watts  per 

candle  375 

Carbon  3-1  watts  per 

candle 480 

Metallized  carbon  2.5 

watts  per  candle. 625 

Tantalum  2.0  watts  per 

candle 750 

“Mazda”  1.25  watts  per 

candle 875 

“Mazda”  1.15  watts  per 

candle 1,000 

Nernst  1.5  watts  per  candle  2,200 

Flaming  arc 5,000 

Open  arc  lamp 10,000-50,000 

Open  arc  crater 200,000 


The  modern  methods  of  church  illumi- 
nation are  as  varied  as  the  buildings 
themselves.  There  are,  however,  certain 
facts  that  have  been  established  by  ex- 
periment and  the  natural  evolution  of 
lighting  such  edifices.  There  should 
always  be  general  illumination  in  addi- 
tion to  the  light  applied  to  the  surfaces 
when  required  for  special  objects  so  that 


43 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


44 


FIRST  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST  SCIENTIST,  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 
MR.  EDGAR  A.  MATHEWS,  ARCHITECT 

(For  additional  illustrations  of  this  subject  see  index) 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


the  eye  will  be  rested  and  not  constantly 
be  trying  to  focus  on  account  of  variation 
in  light  conditions.  There  should  be  no 
naked  lights  of  high  candle  power  but 
shades,  ground  glass  bulbs,  and  other 
devices  should  be  employed  to  prevent 
glare.  The  quality  of  the  light  on  the 
interior  should  be  mellow.  No  direct 
rays  of  light  should  be  directed  into  the 
eyes  of  any  person.  It  is  a mistake  to 
attempt  to  eliminate  all  shadows  as  they 
have  their  value  in  producing  the  desired 
result.  But  great  care  should  be  exer- 
cised to  have  no  shadow  on  any  surface 
where  the  light  is  used  for  a specific  pur- 
pose such  as  reading.  Lamps  should  be 
renewed  when  they  reach  the  point  in 
their  life  that  they  give  80%  of  their  rated 
candle  power. 

The  most  modern  and  satisfactory 
method  of  lighting  the  chancel  is  by 
placing  a continuous  reflector  back  of  the 
piers  on  either  side  and  the  arch  at  the 
ceiling.  This  has  been  done  in  many  cases, 
probably  the  most  modern  is  the  Cathe- 
dral of  St.  John  the  Divine  in  New  York. 

The  pews  can  be  lighted  properly  by 
means  of  electrolier,  or  lights  at  the  capi- 
tals. If  there  is  a gallery,  lights  must  be 
placed  under  it  to  kill  the  shadow.  This 
can  be  done  by  brackets  on  side  walls  or 
lights  sunk  into  the  under  side  of  the  gal- 
lery. Great  care  should  be  exercised  to 
have  the  correct  balance  of  light  under 
the  gallery.  The  lighting  of  the  pews  is 
governed  entirely  by  the  type  of  architec- 
ture and  scheme  of  decoration.  The 
color  scheme  should  be  adopted  in  con- 
junction with  the  lighting  possibilities  as 


either  can  render  the  other  incongruous. 
The  changing  of  colors  can  be  seen  by  the 
schedule  of  Ritchie  on  the  second  follow- 
ing page : 

As  a rule  the  ceiling  should  not  be 
lighted  except  by  what  naturally  filters 
there  from  the  illumination  of  the  spaces 
below. 

Special  light  tight  reflectors  should  be 
provided  for  the  clergy,  organist,  and 
choristers,  to  throw  light  only  on  the 
pages  to  be  read.  The  general  illumina- 
tion should  not  be  sufficiently  high  to  en- 
able them  to  read  easily  as  it  will  then  be 
too  high  for  proper  effect  and  eye  ease  in 
the  body  of  the  church. 

Windows  have  been  successfully  lighted 
in  two  ways.  One  method  is  to  place 
lights  between  the  inner  and  outer  win- 
dow in  reflectors  with  glass  screens  of 
different  density  so  as  to  flood  the  stained 
glass  with  lights  modified  at  proper  points 
for  the  design. 

The  second  method  can  only  be  used 
when  conditions  on  the  exterior  permit. 
This  is  to  place  lights  outside  the  win- 
dows and  above  same  with  reflectors  to 
throw  the  light  through  the  stained  glass. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the 
illumination  of  a church  is  not  a problem 
to  be  solved  in  a general  way  but  each 
building  must  be  worked  out  by  itself,  and 
by  one  familiar  with  all  the  sources  of 
light,  the  method  of  installation,  the 
natural  laws,  the  physiological  laws,  and 
the  architectural  design.  In  short,  it  is 
a problem  which  can  be  properly  solved 
only  with  the  co-operation  of  the  Archi- 
tect and  Consulting  Engineer. 


45 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


ST.  PAUL’S  CATHEDRAL,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 

(For  additional  illustrations  of  this  subject  see  index) 


46 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


RITCHIE’S  SCHEDULE  OF  COLOR 

(Referred  to  on  second  preceding  page) 


Description 
of  Light 
Used 

Appearance 

COLOUR 

Brown 

Red 

Green 

Mauve 

Blue 

Orange  and 
Yellow 

Bright 

diffused 

daylight 

Bluish 
white  or 
pure  white 

Normal 

Normal 

Normal 

Normal 

Normal 

Normal 

Inverted 
0.  I.  arc 
lamp 

Bluish 
white  or 
pure  white 

Normal 

Slightly 

brighter 

than 

normal 

Normal 

Slightly 

darker 

than 

normal 

Normal 

Normal 

Enclosed 
arc  lamp 

Bluish 

white 

Darkened 

Lightened 

several 

shades 

Darkened 

consider- 

ably 

Darkened 

slightly 

Darkened 

slightly 

Darkened 

slightly 

Metallic 

filament 

incandescent 

lamps 

Yellow 

white 

Lightened 

and 

changed  to 
reddish 
tint 

Lightened 

many 

shades 

Darkened 

and 

changed  to 
a yellower 
tint 

Changed 
to  redder 
tint 

Darkened 

and 

changed  to 
purplish 
colour 

Brightened 

and 

changed  to 
a more 
orange 
shade 

Inverted 

incandescent 

gas 

Greenish 

yellow 

Darkened 

Lightened 

many 

shades 

Darkened 

and 

changed  to 
a yellower 
tint 

Darkened 

and 

changed  to 
a redder 
tint 

Darkened 

and 

changed  to 
a more 
navy  blue 

Brightened 

many 

shades 

Carbon 

filament 

incandescent 

lamps 

Orange 

yellow 

Reddened 
in  tint 

Lightened 

many 

shades 

Darkened 

and 

changed  to 
a yellower 
tint 

Darkened 

and 

changed  to 
a pinker 
tint 

Darkened 

and 

changed  to 
a much 
more 

purple  colour 

Brightened 

and 

changed  to 
a deep 
orange 

Ordinary  gas 
light 

Yellow 

Reddened 
in  tint 

Lightened 

consider- 

ably 

Changed 
to  a 

yellower 

green 

Changed 
to  a pink 
rose 

coloured 

tint 

Darkened 

and 

changed  to 
a more 
navy  blue 

Brightened 

and 

changed  to 
orange 

White  flame 
arc  lamp 

Bluish 

white 

Slightly 
reddened 
in  tint 

Lightened 

many 

shades 

Changed 
to  a yellower 
tint  and 
lightened 
slightly 

Changed 
to  a bluer 
and  darker 
shade 

Brightened 
and  changed 
to  a more 
intense 
blue 

Changed 
to  a deeper 
and  more 
orange 
colour 

Yellow  flame 
arc  lamp 

Deep 

yellow 

Darkened 

slightly 

Changed 
to  a brick 
red 

Deadened 

and 

changed  to 
a yellower 
colour 

Darkened 
consider- 
ably and 
changed  to 
a purple 

Darkened 

and 

changed  to 
a more 
navy  blue 

Changed 
to  a 

deeper  and 
more  orange 
colour 

Mercury 
vapour  lamp 

Pale 

blue-green 

Changed  to 
a greenish 
colour 

Changed  to 
almost 
black 

Lightened 

consider- 

ably 

Changed  to 
a slate- 
blue  grey 

Deadened 

Changed  to 
a greenish 
yellow 

47 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


ALTAR  AND  REREDOS 


ALL  SAINTS  CHURCH,  GREAT  NECK,  L.  L,  N.  Y. 
MESSRS.  CRAM.  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


48 


THE  ORGAN  FROM  THE  ARCHITECT’S  STANDPOINT 

By  ARTHUR  WHEATON  CONGDON,  A.A.I.A. 


The  bulk  of  the  church  organ 
causes  it  to  be  the  most  conspicu- 
ous article  of  furniture  in  any  room 
where  it  is  placed,  and  the  fact 
that  its  size  makes  it  a fixed  part  of  the 
interior  at  once  suggests  its  use  as  a part 
of  the  design.  The  organ  builder  is  gen- 
erally a resourceful  man,  and  more  than 
once  has  made  up  for  the  architect’s  lack 
of  foresight  by  his  ingenuity.  It  is  the 
purpose  of  this  article  to  consider  the 
organ  in  relation  to  the  design  of  the 
building,  leaving  details  of  construction 
to  some  of  the  well-known  textbooks  on 
the  subject. 

An  organ  placed  in  a large  church 
would  naturally  be  designed  by  its  builder 
mainly  for  the  support  of  chorus  singing, 
while  that  in  a concert  room  or  residence 
would  be  mostly  used  as  a solo  instrument 
in  which  great  power  would  seldom  be 
required.  All  details  of  construction, 
determining  the  manner  of  placing  the 
organ  in  the  building,  are  the  same,  dif- 
fering only  with  the  bulk  of  the  instru- 
ment. 

The  instrument  that  we  know  as  “an 
organ”  is  really  a combination  of  several 
instruments  which  may  be  played  sepa- 
rately or  in  various  combinations.  In 
the  first  place,  every  organ  has  the  main  * 
subdivisions  that  show  as  separate  banks 
of  keys.  One  of  these  is  intended  to  be 
played  by  the  feet,  and  is  therefore  called 
the  “pedal”  organ;  the  others,  played  by 
the  hands,  and  hence  called  “manuals,” 
are  known  as  the  choir,  swell,  great,  solo 
and  echo  organs,  each  having  its  own 
manual.  A very  small  organ  may  have 
but  one  manual,  while  a large  one  may 
have  three  or  four  manuals,  or  banks  oif 
keys.  The  pedal  and  manual  keyboards 
are  grouped  together  with  the  stop- 
knobs  and  other  mechanical  devices,  as 
will  be  explained  later,  the  whole  being 
known  as  the  “console.”  This  may  be 
attached  to  the  organ  and  form  a part  of 
the  case,  or  it  may  be  detached  and  even 
in  a remote  part  of  the  building,  con- 


nected to  the  organ  by  electricity  or 
otherwise. 

Each  manual  has  its  own  set  of  stops, 
as  has  the  pedal  organ.  Each  set  of 
stops  represents  a complete  musical  in- 
strument, the  scale  generally  correspond- 
ing to  the  keys,  and  being  as  complete  in 
itself  as  is  a pianoforte,  with  the  excep- 
tion that  the  number  of  notes  on  an  organ 
keyboard  is  less,  the  pedal  keyboard  in- 
cluding only  thirty-two  notes,  and  the 
manuals  generally  sixty-one.  Each  stop 
that  is  drawn  on  a particular  keyboard 
will  sound  on  that  keyboard,  and  if  sev- 
eral stops  are  drawn  several  notes  will 
sound  for  each  key  that  is  depressed; 
moreover,  by  means  of  the  “couplers,” 
the  different  keyboards  may  be  con- 
nected, and  not  only  at  unison  pitch,  but 
also  at  an  octave  above  or  below,  so  that 
the  pressure  of  one  finger  may  be  made 
to  sound  a great  many  different  pipes. 

The  different  departments  of  the  organ 
may  be  placed  together  or,  in  the  case  of 
a large  building,  may  be  divided,  so  that 
the  echo  organ  may  be  in  the  roof  or 
other  remote  position ; and  the  rest  of  the 
instrument  may  be  further  divided  and 
placed  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stage  or 
chancel,  or  a part  may  be  at  each  end  of 
the  auditorium.  This  makes  a variety  of 
effects  possible  to  the  skilled  performer, 
and  also  makes  the  instrument  more  flexi- 
ble as  a decorative  feature ; but  such  divi- 
sions should  be  made  with  considerable 
discretion  owing  to  the  number  of  pitfalls 
for  the  unwary.  It  is  obvious  that  for 
unity  of  musical  effect  the  parts  of  the 
instrument  should  not  be  too  widely  scat- 
tered, and  if  it  is  to  be  used  to  accompany 
singing,  great  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  placing  of  these  divisions  of  the  in- 
strument does  not  affect  their  value  ad- 
versely for  purposes  of  accompaniment. 

There  is  a certain  church  in  which  a 
very  fine  and  costly  organ  has  been 
spoiled  for  practical  use  by  its  unwise 
division;  part  of  it  is  placed  very  low 
down,  close  to  the  choir  and  directly  back 


49 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


of  the  organist;  and  part  of  it  has  been 
placed  in  a gallery  in  the  other  end  of  the 
church.  The  result  is  that  the  portion 
close  to  the  organist  screams  in  his  ears 
so  that  he  cannot  hear  his  choir,  while  the 
part  placed  in  the  gallery  is  so  distant 
that  the  choir  cannot  hear  it  above  the 
uproar  of  their  own  singing;  and  the 
organist  can  never  hear  both  parts  of 
his  instrument  at  once  when  playing 
them  together. 

The  division  of  the  organ  and  the 
placing  of  the  console  are  dependent  in 
large  measure  on  the  kind  of  action  used, 
whether  electric,  pneumatic,  or  the  old 
tracker  action.  The  architect  must  have 
some  idea  of  which  is  to  be  used,  and 
should  be  in  a position  to  advise  intelli- 
gently between  them. 

The  “action’^  of  the  organ  is  the  device 
which  transmits  the  pressure  of  the 
finger  on  the  key  to  the  pipe  and  causes 
it  to  speak;  it  has  no  reference  to  the 
motive  power  for  the  bellows  or  blower, 
as  is  supposed  by  some  persons.  Thus 
an  electric  organ  may  be  blown  by  hand, 
or  a tracker  action  instrument  blown  by 
electric  power.  Tracker  action,  the  old- 
est and  simplest  of  all,  takes  its  name 
from  the  trackers,  which  are  strips  of 
wood  connecting  the  levers  of  the  key- 
board at  one  end,  and  the  organ-pipe 
valve  at  the  other.  Its  merit  is  that  it  is 
positive  and  dependable,  and  seldom  gets 
out  of  order  even  when  neglected,  and 
when  broken  is  easily  repaired  by  any 
mechanic.  Its  fault  is  that  in  large  organs 
it  makes  the  touch  extremely  heavy,  so 
that  the  organist  labors,  rather  than 
plays;  this  is  particularly  true  when  the 
manuals  are  coupled  together. 

Another  fault  is  that  the  console  must 
always  be  close  to  the  organ,  and  is  gen- 
erally attached  thereto.  This  makes  it 
awkward  if  the  organ  is  to  be  placed  in  a 
music  hall  where  on  occasions  an  orches- 
tra or  a chorus  is  to  be  accommodated. 
Tracker  action  is  in  common  use,  how- 
ever, for  small  organs,  particularly  if 
they  are  to  be  placed  in  remote  villages 
where  a proper  mechanic  can  be  obtained 
only  once  a year. 

The  next  development  in  organ  action 
was  the  tubular  pneumatic.  In  this  the 
impulse  is  taken  from  key  to  pipe  by 


means  of  compressed  air,  through  leaden 
tubes  filled  with  air  under  a slight  pres- 
sure which  is  increased  by  the  pressure  of 
the  key  on  a little  bellows.  This  form  of 
action  is  better  than  the  old  tracker,  as 
it  is  so  much  lighter  in  touch  even  when 
the  whole  organ  is  coupled  together ; and 
it  is  also  free  from  the  defect  of  a possi- 
ble partial  opening  of  the  valve  by  a 
touch  lacking  in  positiveness,  which  is 
apt  to  give  a false  note.  It  permits  the 
console  to  be  detached  and  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  organ,  but  in  a fixed  posi- 
tion. This  distance  should  not  be  over 
about  thirty  feet,  as  the  compressibility 
of  air  will  make  the  action  slow  at  a 
greater  distance.  The  action  is  a durable 
one,  as  the  only  things  to  wear  out  are  the 
rubber  connections  of  the  valves  with  the 
metal  tubes,  and  when  in  need  of  repair 
is  not  difficult  to  mend. 

The  electric  action  is  the  most  recent 
development.  In  it  the  impulse  is  taken 
from  key  to  pipe  by  means  of  an  electric 
current  of  low  voltage,  the  pressure  of 
the  key  making  a contact,  and  the  current 
energizing  an  electro-magnet  in  the 
organ,  which  in  turn  operates  the  pneu- 
matic valve  at  the  pipe.  It  is,  therefore, 
sometimes  called  “electro-pneumatic” 
action.  Owing  to  the  vagaries  of  elec- 
tricity it  is  less  dependable  than  either  of 
the  foregoing  actions,  because  if  anything 
does  go  wrong  a skilled  mechanic  is  re- 
quired to  locate  the  trouble.  Each  day 
sees  improvements  in  it,  however,  and  as 
the  knowledge  of  electricity  becomes  more 
widespread  this  form  of  action  will  prob- 
ably become  universal,  even  for  small  in- 
struments. It  is,  of  course,  instantane- 
ously quick,  so  that  the  console  may  be 
placed  at  any  distance  from  the  organ 
permitted  by  the  slow  rate  of  travel  of 
sound;  and  as  the  necessary  connection 
need  only  be  by  a slender  flexible  cable 
the  console  may  be  freely  movable. 
Owing  to  the  great  ease  with  which  the 
electricity  can  be  controlled,  much  more 
variety  of  mechanical  device  may  be  de- 
signed ; and  an  electric  console  may  have 
a bewildering  array  of  more  or  less  help- 
ful devices  which,  if  intelligently  used, 
make  musical  effects  possible  that  cannot 
be  attained  with  any  other  form  of  action. 

In  all  three  forms  of  action  composition 


50 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


AISLE  CASE  OF  ORGAN,  ST.  THOMAS’S  CHURCH,  NEW  YORK 
CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  AND  NEW  YORK),  ARCHITECTS 

51 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


pedals  or  pistons  are  provided  by  which 
a number  of  stops  may  be  drawn  by  one 
motion  on  any  manual ; but  in  the  electric 
action  this  may  be  further  amplified  by 
making  the  same  piston  draw  a combina- 
tion of  stops  on  the  manual,  alone,  or  add 
to  it  the  proper  pedal  stops  by  pressing 
the  piston  or  key  harder;  and  a “suitable 
bass”  key  may  be  provided,  after  pressing 
which  any  change  in  stops  made  by  hand 
will  automatically  make  the  suitable 
changes  in  the  pedal  registration.  An- 
other arrangement  makes  it  possible  to 
draw  a stop  on  a manual  other  than  its 
own. 

If  the  action  may  be  likened  to  the 
nervous  system,  the  blowing  apparatus  is 
obviously  the  lungs  of  the  organ.  The 
early  organs  were  blown  by  a bellows  like 
that  used  by  the  smith  in  his  forge.  As 
this  does  not  give  a steady  wind  pressure, 
a wind  reservoir  was  made,  fed  by  one  or 
more  bellows  or  “feeders,”  The  modern 
organ,  with  its  varied  resources,  calls  for 
more  wind,  and  in  response  to  this  de- 
mand blowing  apparatus  of  a special  type 
has  been  developed,  in  which  the  requisite 
air  pressure  is  maintained  by  a rotary 
fan  usually  direct-connected  to  an  electric 
motor.  This  motor  takes  its  current 
from  the  street  mains,  and  is  therefore 
generally  of  an  alternating-current  type. 
Such  motors  are  apt  to  make  a humming 
or  buzzing  sound  while  running,  and  as 
the  fan  or  blower  may  do  likewise,  the 
whole  apparatus  should  be  enclosed  in  a 
sound-proof  room  and  placed  at  as  great 
a distance  from  the  audience  as  possible. 
The  wind-trunk,  which  conveys  the  air  to 
the  organ,  should  also  be  provided  with  a 
suitable  check-valve  and  flexible  sleeve  so 
as  to  prevent  transmission  of  the  sound 
along  the  air-current  or  through  the  metal 
of  the  pipe.  The  architect  should  take 
care  with  the  placing  of  these  blower  sets 
that  they  should  be  able  to  take  in  and 
deliver  air  to  the  organ  that  is  free  from 
dirt  or  dust,  and  is  at  about  the  same 
temperature  as  the  air  of  the  auditorium. 
This  is  necessary  in  order  to  keep  the 
organ  pipes  in  tune  as  well  as  to  avoid 
chilling  the  auditorium  or  filling  it  with 
foul  or  musty  air;  and  as  the  amount  of 
air  passing  through  the  pipes  of  a large 
organ  in  the  course  of  an  hour’s  recital 


is  very  considerable,  it  is  obviously  a mat- 
ter for  serious  attention. 

The  rotary  fan  or  blower  is  only  pos- 
sible where  electric  power  is  available; 
in  more  remote  places  and  with  smaller 
organs  the  blowing  apparatus  used  is  a 
bellows,  or  reservoir  with  feeders,  worked 
in  the  familiar  manner  of  pumping  up  and 
down,  or  if  there  are  three  feeders,  they 
may  be  operated  by  a wheel  and  crank- 
shaft. Both  methods  are  largely  used, 
the  former  being  necessary  only  when  a 
reciprocal-action  water-motor  is  the 
source  of  power.  Water  power  applied 
in  this  manner  is  generally  reliable,  but 
the  architect  should  make  sure  that  ample 
supply  and  waste  pipes  are  provided;  a 
3-manual  organ  will  require  a 2-inch  sup- 
ply pipe  at  the  usual  city  pressure.  Care 
should  also  be  taken  that  the  motor-room 
is  made  sufficiently  accessible  so  that  the 
motor  valves  may  be  packed  and  other- 
wise attended  to  at  regular  intervals; 
otherwise,  the  grit  may  cut  the  metal 
parts  and  make  costly  repairs  necessary. 
The  motor  room  should  also  be  protected 
against  freezing. 

It  is  better  always  to  have  some  form 
of  power  to  operate  the  bellows.  If  a man 
or  boy  has  to  be  depended  on  he  is  seldom 
available  at  the  time  when  the  organist 
wants  to  practise,  and  is  particularly 
liable  to  the  failings  of  the  flesh  when  he 
is  most  needed. 

The  designing  of  the  organ  chamber 
and  its  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  plan 
is  peculiarly  the  architect’s  province,  as 
no  amount  of  ingenuity  can  get  the  best 
results  out  of  a badly  placed  instrument, 
although  the  organ-builder  shows  a re- 
markable ability  in  overcoming  difficul- 
ties. It  is  a lamentable  fact  that  the 
architect  may  be  to  blame  for  the  weak- 
ness of  tone  and  lack  of  brilliancy  of 
many  a costly  instrument  owing  to  a 
poorly  planned  organ  chamber.  Few  of 
us  seem  to  realize  how  large  and  bulky 
even  a small  organ  is ; and  a costly  instru- 
ment takes  up  a surprising  amount  of 
room  both  in  height  and  floor  space,  so 
that  its  location  in  the  plan  is  a matter 
calling  for  serious  thought. 

The  organ  need  not  be  placed  in  a cham- 
ber; it  is  not  always  a necessity,  and 
where  by  a little  forethought  it  may  be 


52 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


♦Itl 

4T*T 

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1 

1 

Li 

J 

SOUTH  CHURCH,  NEW  YORK 

CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (NEW  YORK  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


53 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


avoided  and  the  organ  placed  in  a gallery 
or  otherwise  in  a portion  of  the  hall  or 
room  it  is  almost  sure  to  gain  in  beauty 
of  tone.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  place  it 
in  a chamber,  as  is  usually  the  case  in 
churches  having  chancel  choirs,  the  first 
requisite  of  such  a chamber  is  ample  fioor 
space.  If  the  pipes  have  to  be  crowded 
together  they  will  tend  to  muffle  one  an- 
other’s sound  at  best,  and-  at  worst  the 
laboratory  experiment  of  “interference 
of  sound  waves”  may  be  repeated  on  a 


large  scale,  and  certain  pipes  when  sound- 
ing at  the  same  time  may  actually  neu- 
tralize one  another’s  tone  in  whole  or  in 
part  so  that  little  or  no  sound  is  produced. 
Moreover,  if  pipes  are  so  packed  that  they 
cannot  be  reached  readily  for  purposes  of 
tuning  they  may  be  slighted  altogether 
or  not  tuned  as  often  as  the  rest  of  the 
instrument;  and  some  may  be  so  inac- 
cessible as  to  render  the  journey  to  them 
dangerous  to  the  tuner  as  well  as  to  the 
delicate  mechanism  of  the  instrument. 

Quite  as  important  a requisite  is  ample 
height,  for  an  open  pipe  speaks  out  of  its 
mouth  or  top,  and  if  this  is  too  close  to 


the  ceiling  the  tone  may  be  impaired  or 
even  altered  in  pitch ; also,  as  heated  air 
arises  these  longer  tubes  being  at  a 
higher  temperature  than  the  rest  of  the 
organ  they  will  go  out  of  tune  during  the 
concert  or  service  when  the  additional 
people  and  lights  and  lack  of  ventilation 
combine  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the 
room  above  its  normal. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  chamber 
should  open  into  the  main  room  with  as 
little  obstruction  to  the  sound  as  possible ; 

the  ceiling  should  follow  the 
line  of  the  arches  in  order  to 
avoid  pockets,  and  the  arches 
should  not  be  choked  up  with 
too  dense  a mass  of  front 
pipes  or  organ  case.  It  is 
possible  to  overcome  the  ex- 
istence of  pockets  in  some 
measure  by  the  use  of  re- 
flectors of  concrete  or  wood, 
but  these  are  only  makeshifts 
after  all. 

Unquestionably  the  free- 
standing organ  is  the  most 
effective  musically ; nothing 
could  be  better  for  sound 
than  the  position  of  the 
organs  in  the  Continental 
cathedrals  in  their  galleries 
or  the  English  ones  on  top 
of  the  choir  screens.  In  a 
recently  finished  church  the 
old  organ  was  moved  from 
its  badly  planned  chamber  to 
a proper  gallery  with  regret 
that  so  inefficient  an  instru- 
ment should  have  to  be  used 
in  the  new  church  even  tem- 
porarily, and  great  was  the  surprise  of 
the  congregation  when  they  heard  the 
full,  sweet  tone  of  their  old  organ  in  its 
new  position.  It  leads  one  to  ponder 
how  much  better  many  a good  organ 
might  sound  if  placed  to  better  advan- 
tage. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  there  is  no 
standard  of  size  for  organs  as  there  is  for 
pianos,  for  example;  when  one  is  asked 
how  large  an  organ  chamber  ought  to  be 
there  is  no  very  definite  answer  that  can 
be  given.  Only  a few  makers  list  stock 
sizes  and  these  are  seldom  used  except 
for  the  smallest  and  cheapest  instru- 


54 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


FIRST  BAPTIST  CHURCH,  PITTSBURGH,  PA. 

CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (NEW  YORK  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 

55 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


ments;  generally  the  instrument  is 
planned  for  the  building  according  to  its 
needs. 

In  our  o^ATi  practice  we  have  found  that 
for  a small  chui’ch,  say  one  seating  about 
four  hundred  persons,  a chamber  about 
fourteen  feet  deep  and  eighteen  wide  will 
accommodate  an  organ  costing  about 
$5,000;  and  we  try  to  get  it  at  least 
twenty  feet  high  at  the  sides  and  higher 
in  the  middle,  following  the  line  of  the 
arch.  In  a large  church  or  in  a concert 
room  where  four  or  five 
times  this  sum  may  be  spent 
veiw  much  more  room  must 
be  pro\uded.  A large  organ 
may  have  a 32-foot  open 
stop  in  the  pedal  depart- 
ment, the  longest  pipe  of 
which  would  be  about  40 
feet  long;  and  even  if  it  had 
only  a stop  of  32  feet  tone, 
using  a 16-foot  stopped  pipe, 
there  would  be  such  an 
array  of  other  pipes,  swell 
boxes,  etc.,  that  the  organ 
would  have  to  be  built  in 
two  or  more  stories,  requir- 
ing a total  height  of  over 
thirty  feet,  not  counting 
free  space  above  the  pipes. 

Mention  has  been  made  of 
the  necessity  of  pro^dding 
pure  air  at  a proper  temper- 
ature for  the  blo^ving  appa- 
ratus ; it  is  quite  as  im- 
portant that  the  organ 
chamber  should  be  well  ven- 
tilated and  kept  at  about 
the  same  temperature  as  the 
rest  of  the  room.  Ventila- 
tion is  necessary  to  preserve  the  deli- 
cate and  perishable  wire,  leather  or 
rubber  parts  of  the  mechanism  which 
would  be  damaged  by  gas  fumes,  and 
the  necessity  for  equable  temperature  is 
apparent  when  one  considers  that  a 
change  of  a dozen  degrees  of  tempera- 
ture will  alter  the  pitch  of  metal  pipes 
about  a semi-tone;  as  the  wooden  pipes 
remain  constant  or  nearly  so,  the  effect 
is  avfful  to  contemplate.  For  this  reason 
it  is  best  not  to  have  any  windows  in  the 
organ  chamber ; in  winter  they  maj"  chill 
a part  of  the  organ,  or  if  sunlight  enters 


through  them  a part  may  be  heated  by 
the  sun’s  rays  more  than  the  rest  and  the 
result  will  of  course  be  disastrous  to  the 
effect  of  the  whole. 

It  follows  that  no  radiator  or  heater 
ought  to  be  placed  in  the  organ  chamber, 
nor  should  the  boiler  room  be  located  in 
the  cellar  beneath  the  organ,  for  even  if 
it  did  not  heat  it  unevenly  it  would  dry 
out  the  woodwork  to  an  injurious  extent, 
causing  costly  leaks  and  rendeidng  the 
delicate  action  unreliable. 


In  placing  an  organ  in  a gallery  or  on 
a wooden  floor  the  framing  should  be 
amply  strong  to  support  the  great  weight 
of  all  the  metal  pipes ; if  there  is  the  least 
settlement  there  will  be  a corresponding 
change  in  relationship  of  the  mechanism 
and  trouble  will  ensue.  We  may  assume 
the  weight  of  the  organ  at  from  150  to 
200  pounds  per  square  foot,  according  to 
its  size,  and  to  endeavor  to  frame  so  that 
there  will  be  as  little  settlement  as  pos- 
sible from  timber  shrinkage. 

The  walls  of  the  organ  chamber,  or  the 
space  back  of  the  organ,  ought  to  be  con- 


56 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


CHAPEL  OF  THE  INTERCESSION,  NEW  YORK 

CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (NEW  YORK  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


creted  directly  on  the  masonry  without 
furring,  and  on  metal  lath  in  the  case  of 
ceilings;  this  adds  greatly  to  the  reso- 
nance and  hence  to  the  power  and  rich- 
ness of  tone  of  the  instrument;  raising 
the  organ  in  a gallery  also  seems  to  have 
a good  effect,  as  the  little  defects  of 
sound,  the  hissing  of  leaking  wind,  the 
clatter  of  pneumatics,  and  so  on,  are  lost 
in  the  distance. 

The  thoughtful  architect  will  also  pro- 
vide wall  plugs  for  portable  electric  lights 
for  the  use  of  the  tuners ; many  a fire  has 
been  started  by  the  tuner’s  candle,  and 
the  interior  of  an  organ,  with  its  great 
mass  of  dry  wood,  is  a risk  that  should 
be  considered. 

The  possibilities  of  division  of  the  or- 
gan have  been  referred  to ; care  should  be 
taken  in  planning  for  this  that  the  dis- 
tances are  not  made  too  great.  Sound 
travels  only  1,120  feet  per  second,  and  the 
human  ear  can  readily  detect  intervals 
finer  than  the  one-twenty-fifth  of  a sec- 
ond; therefore  no  two  parts  of  an  organ 
that  are  to  be  played  at  the  same  time 
should  be  separated  by  more  than  sixty 
feet;  but  this  need  not  prevent  the  loca- 
tion of  the  echo  or  solo  organs  in  all  sorts 
of  odd  and  out-of-the-way  places.  In  Gar- 
den City  Cathedral,  for  example,  the 
echo  organ  is  in  the  roof  above  the  vault- 
ing, and  another  division  of  the  organ  is 
in  the  basement  robing  room.  In  Cleve- 
land Cathedral  a stop  of  the  solo  organ 


is  in  the  basement  and  the  sound  is  re- 
fiected  up  through  ventilator  faces  at  the 
back  of  the  nave,  the  effect  of  a swell  be- 
ing produced  by  varying  the  positions  of 
the  concrete  reflectors. 

The  architect’s  next  care  will  be  for  the 
location  of  the  console  or  key-desk,  if  it  is 
not  to  be  attached  to  the  organ.  In  the 
case  of  concert  halls  it  is  important  to  be 
able  to  place  the  console  anywhere;  but 
if  the  detached  console  is  to  be  a fixture 
it  should  be  arranged  so  that  end  or  other 
panels  may  be  removed  in  order  to  get  at 
the  action  without  disturbing  other  fixed 
furniture.  Space  behind  the  organ  bench 
should  also  be  provided,  so  that  a tall  man 
may  shove  it  back;  it  is  as  hard  for  him 
to  play  close  up  to  the  console  as  to  ride 
a boy’s-size  bicycle.  If  there  are  any 
architectural  reasons  why  these  matters 
cannot  readily  be  arranged  the  organ 
builder  should  be  consulted  before  the 
plans  are  entirely  fixed. 

The  size  of  the  console  varies  greatly. 
Naturally,  the  console  of  a small  organ 
is  smaller  in  all  its  dimensions  than  that 
for  a large  one;  and  that  for  an  electric 
action  is  smaller  than  a tubular-pneu- 
matic console,  sometimes  by  a foot  or 
more.  It  is  safe  to  assume  a space  about 
five  feet  square  on  the  floor  for  the  con- 
sole and  more  in  width  if  possible;  the 
depth  increases  only  when  there  are  more 
manuals  and  the  height  is  almost  a con- 
stant unless  there  are  a great  many  stops. 


58 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


In  the  purchase  of  an  organ  of  any  size 
the  services  of  an  expert  adviser  are 
almost  imperative,  in  which  case  the 
architect  may  safely  leave  the  considera- 
tion of  the  organ  specification  to  him,  re- 
taining control  only  over  the  provisions 
for  organ  case. 

Organ  specifications  are  very  differ- 
ent from  those  which  we  prepare  in  our 
offices  for  the  mason  and  carpenter ; they 
are  little  more  than  lists  of  names  of  the 
stops  that  are  to  be  included  in  the  in- 
strument. The  choice  of  these  is  a 
specialty  with  which  the  architect  had 
better  not  interfere  without  special  train- 
ing ; but  as  the  adviser  to  his  client  there 
are  certain  points  in  an  organ  specifica- 
tion that  he  should  be  familiar  with. 

The  costly  stops  in  an  organ  are  the 
‘‘foundation  stops,’’  and  an  organ  needs  a 
foundation  of  tone  quite  as  firm  as  that 
for  a building.  The  diapasons,  particu- 
larly the  open,  both  in  pedal  and  manuals ; 
the  bourdon  in  the  pedal  and  sometimes 
in  the  manuals,  and  the  tibias  are  founda- 
tion stops.  These  must  be  of  ample  scale 
or  diameter  in  proportion  to  height  and 
must  be  of  good  materials  of  heavy 
weights  in  order  to  give  the  necessary 
solidity  and  richness  of  tone.  In  wooden 
pipes  white  pine  is  used  almost  alto- 
gether; in  metal  pipes  a mixture  of  tin 
and  lead  is  used,  25  per  cent,  of  the 
former  being  good  practice ; if  it  is  richer, 
say  50  per  cent.,  the  result  is  called 
“spotted  metal,”  and  makes  a very  beau- 
tiful front  pipe  without  any  painting  or 
gilding;  its  tone  is  very  brilliant,  and  it 
is  generally  used  in  this  country  only  for 
the  slender  pipes  of  the  string-tones. 
Zinc  is  often  used,  especially  in  cheap 
organs ; it  does  not  give  as  rich  a tone,  but 
it  stands  rough  handling  better. 

The  thickness  of  the  metal  is  of  more 
importance  than  the  species ; this  and  the 
scale  of  the  pipes  is  never  specified  by  a 
maker,  and  one  must  judge  him  by  his 
former  works.  The  scale,  or  diameter  of 
the  pipe,  fixes  the  body  or  largeness  of 
the  tone,  as  the  length  does  its  pitch ; it  is 
dependent  on  the  size  of  the  room  to  be 
filled,  and  also  on  the  wind  pressure  to 
be  used.  A cheaper,  small-scale  pipe  may 
be  used  by  an  unscrupulous  builder  with 
a high  wind-pressure  to  give  the  same 


amount  of  tone  as  the  large-scale  pipe  of 
higher  cost,  but  it  is  notably  lacking  in 
that  mellowness  and  “golden”  quality  be- 
loved of  the  poets,  that  one  hears  in  the 
famous  foreign  organs. 

In  considering  the  organ  specifications 
submitted  with  the  competitive  bids  the 
committee  will  naturally  count  the  num- 
ber of  stops  that  are  specified,  and  as  it  is 
a usual  device  to  number  and  include  in 
the  list  such  useful  but  inexpensive  items 
as  “Bellows  Signal”  and  “Tremulant,” 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  architect 
will  make  his  advice  much  more  helpful 
to  the  committee.  These  things  are  easily 
allowed  for;  but  it  is  less  noticeable  to 
the  casual  observer  when  a stop  is  split 
in  two,  as  “Bourdon  Bass”  and  “Bourdon 
Treble,”  where  the  two  stop-knobs  merely 
control  the  lower  and  upper  parts  of  one 
stop.  The  addition  of  the  so-called 
“fancy  stops”  is  of  value  to  a concert 
organ,  but  in  a church  organ  these  com- 
paratively inexpensive  stops  add  little  or 
nothing  to  the  power  of  the  instrument, 
and  are  chiefly  useful  for  greater  variety 
in  soft  solo  playing;  nevertheless,  they 
swell  the  list  of  stops  just  as  much  as  do 
the  more  valuable  but  also  more  costly 
stops  of  foundation  character.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  draw  the  line  between  these  and 
the  fancy  stops,  but  among  the  latter  are 
found  stops  with  such  names  as  Unda 
Maris,  Vox  Celestis,  and  the  like;  the 
foundation  stops  seem  to  have  simple 
names  like  Diapason,  Flute,  Tibia,  and 
so  on. 

Generally  a diagram  or  series  of  notes 
in  the  specification  is  provided  to  make 
clear  just  how  many  really  speaking  stops 
there  are,  and  how  often  these  are  bor- 
rowed. The  value  of  this  borrowing  is  a 
vexed  question  from  a musical  standpoint, 
and  many  cogent  arguments  are  ad- 
vanced both  for  and  against  it;  but  it 
undoubtedly  adds  to  the  variety  of  tone 
combinations  at  a small  expense,  while  it 
does  not  pretend  to  increase  the  power  or 
body  of  the  tone  in  any  way. 

The  compass  of  the  keyboards,  both 
manual  and  pedal,  is  always  specified  by 
the  number  of  notes  in  each;  modern 
organs  have  more  than  the  old-fashioned 
ones,  as  they  are  required  by  modern 
music,  and  one  should  note  with  care 


59 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


whether  the  specification  calls  for  the 
modern  range  of  32  notes  on  the  pedal 
organ  and  61  on  the  manuals.  Note  also 
whether  all  the  stops  run  throughout  this 
range;  in  a cheap  organ  the  more  costly 
stops  may  lack  their  lower  and  even  their 
upper  parts,  pipes  being  provided  only  for 
the  middle  register.  This  makes  an  in- 
ferior instrument  for  every  purpose,  but 
it  permits  a large  number  of  stops  for  a 
small  outlay,  as  the  lower  or  bass  notes 
always  require  the  most  costly  pipes.  If 
the  specification  does  not  distinctly  call 
for  all  stops  to  run  through  the  complete 
keyboard  a schedule  should  be  called  for 
showing  the  range  of  each. 

The  pedal  keyboard  on  old  organs  is 
flat,  and  all  the  keys  are  parallel,  like  a 
magnified  piano  keyboard.  In  a board  of 
this  sort  the  lower  and  upper  notes  are  so 
far  away  from  the  performer  as  to  make 
playing  on  them  difficult.  To  obviate  this 
a keyboard  has  been  devised  which  is  con- 
cave and  in  which  the  keys  radiate  from  a 
centre  behind  the  player;  in  this  the 
middle  and  the  two  end  keys  are  theoreti- 
cally equally  easy  for  the  performer  to 
reach  with  his  foot.  This  board  has  been 
adopted  as  a standard  by  the  representa- 
tive body  of  organists,  the  American 
Guild  of  Organists,  and  should  be  pro- 
vided in  all  organ  specifications.  The 
Royal  College  of  Organists  of  Great 
Britain  has  adopted  a similar  pedal- 
board. 

The  couplers  that  are  provided  are  not 
always  numbered  in  the  list  of  stops,  but 
if  this  is  done  allowance  should  be  made 
for  them  by  the  committee;  they  have 
their  legitimate  uses,  and  a certain  num- 
ber of  them  are  necessary ; but  they  are  so 
easy  to  multiply  under  modern  mechani- 
cal methods  and  cost  so  little  that  they 
should  not  figure  as  a competitive  feature 
in  the  specification. 

The  specification  should  also  state 
whether  the  combination  pistons  or  tab- 
lets move  the  stop-knobs  or  not.  Most 
organists  prefer  that  this  should  be  done, 
but  it  complicates  the  console  and  adds  to 
its  size  as  well  as  its  cost  and  is  not  a ne- 
cessity in  a small  organ.  In  large  organs, 
particularly  those  that  are  to  be  played 
on  by  a number  of  different  performers, 
the  registers  or  stop-knobs  certainly 


should  be  moved  by  the  combination  pis- 
tons; in  cases  where  this  is  not  done  an 
indicator  is  provided,  but  this  is  of  little 
use  to  a stranger  and  is  apt  to  get  out  of 
order. 

A feature  of  the  specification  that  re- 
quires attention  is  the  motive  power  for 
the  blowing  apparatus.  Sometimes  this 
is  not  provided  under  the  organ  contract, 
and  sometimes  a motor  may  be  specified 
that  is  not  permitted  by  the  local  laws, 
as  many  towns  will  not  permit  the  use  of 
a water-motor,  and  the  more  expensive 
electric  apparatus  will  have  to  be  used. 
In  any  event,  the  matter  of  power  ought 
to  be  clearly  understood,  and  if  a rotary 
blower  is  to  be  used,  it  should  be  definitely 
specified  as  to  make;  and  the  electric 
motor,  if  specified,  should  be  one  that  will 
suit  the  local  variety  of  electric  current. 

The  specification  ought  also  to  make 
provision  for  the  case  and  console.  It 
seems  hardly  necessary  to  advise  that 
these  should  be  designed  by  the  architect 
of  the  building. 

Organ  cases  may  be  roughly  classified 
in  three  types:  the  first,  in  which  the 
organ  stands  free,  either  in  a gallery  or 
on  a screen;  the  second,  in  which  the 
organ  is  placed  in  a chamber  or  niche, 
and  is  merely  provided  with  a front;  and 
the  third  type,  which  is  seldom  found  out- 
side of  Italy,  in  which  the  front  is  pro- 
vided with  doors  like  a triptych.  The 
second  is  the  type  generally  found  in  Epis- 
copal and  other  churches,  where  the  in- 
strument shows  on  the  chancel  side  only, 
or  occasionally  has  an  additional  front  on 
the  transept  side. 

The  triptych  is  a type  that  gives  the 
greatest  opportunity  for  richness  of  ef- 
fect, and  seems  particularly  applicable 
for  organs  in  residences.  In  penitential 
seasons  these  Italian  organs  have  their 
doors  closed,  and,  as  these  are  much 
plainer  on  the  outside,  the  effect  on  the 
interior  of  the  building  is  most  marked 
and  adds  not  a little  to  the  dramatic  effect 
of  the  penitential  devotions.  Where 
organ  cases  have  been  provided  with  these 
shutters,  it  has  been  said  that  a marked 
improvement  is  observable  in  the  mechan- 
ical department  of  the  organ;  the  action 
wears  better,  and  the  instrument  stands 
in  tune  longer,  owing  to  the  protection 


60 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


given  by  the  closed  doors.  This,  of 
course,  presupposes  the  closing  of  the 
doors  during  the  very  considerable 
periods  during  which  an  organ  is  not  in 
use. 

A variation  of  this  type  of  considerable 
interest  is  the  organ  in  the  church  of  Sta. 
Maria  della  Scala,  Siena;  here  the  organ 
pipes  form  a very  small  part  of  the  dec- 
oration and  the  case-work  is  magnified 
to  the  limit.  It  has  been  taken  as  the 
motive  for  the  organ  case  in  the  New 
England  Conservatory  of  Music,  where 
the  result  is  so  successful  that  it  should 
commend  itself  as  an  inspiration  to  any- 
one seeking  to  design  a fitting  focus  for 
the  music-room  of  a dwelling  or  the  stage 
of  a concert  hall. 

Sometimes  an  organ  is  placed  without 
any  case  at  all,  the  stark,  bare  pipes 
standing  naked  and  unashamed. 

The  painting  or  gilding  of  the  front 
pipes  is  so  common  now  as  to  be  tiresome ; 
the  old  organs  generally  left  the  front 
pipes  in  their  natural  color,  a much  more 
refined  method  than  the  garishness  of  the 
gilded  and  polychromed  pipes  of  the 
late  ’70’s. 

Great  variety  of  arrangement  of  the 
pipes  in  the  case  is  possible,  but  the  archi- 
tect should  consult  with  the  organ  builder 
before  his  design  has  taken  too  definite 
form  and  obtain  from  him  a careful  lay- 
out of  the  front  pipes  along  the  lines  of 
the  sketch  for  the  proposed  work;  this 
will  serve  to  fix  the  scale  of  the  parts  and 


will  obviate  the  expensive  and  unsatis- 
factory device  of  dumb  pipes.  The 
diameter  of  the  pipes  is  fixed  according 
to  the  scale  of  the  organ  and  their  posi- 
tion musically;  but  the  height  may  be 
made  a variable  quantity  by  the  use  of 
dumb  tops  extending  beyond  the  real  top 
of  the  pipe.  This  is  not  a satisfactory  de- 
vice, however,  and  should  be  avoided  if 
possible.  The  pipes  should  always  be 
arranged  with  reference  to  ease  of  tun- 
ing ; in  some  of  the  examples  shown  here- 
with certain  pipes  must  be  dumb,  or  they 
could  never  be  reached  by  the  tuner.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  a pipe  is  always 
tuned  at  the  top  and  not  at  the  lip ; reeds 
are  tuned  in  a position  corresponding  to 
the  lip  of  a ’pipe,  but  as  they  are  not  of 
decorative  value  they  are  not  used  for  dis- 
play pipes,  nor  are  the  wooden  pipes,  as  a 
rule. 

Much  has  been  done  already  to  lift  the 
organ  to  its  proper  place  in  the  scheme  of 
decoration,  but  much  more  can  be  done, 
and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  architects  will 
not  only  consider  the  placing  of  the  organ 
in  the  plan  from  the  practical  stand- 
point, but  will  also  pay  more  attention  to 
its  very  great  possibilities  as  a feature  in 
the  interior  composition,  and  that  they 
will  use  their  influence  with  their  clients 
to  promote  this  end.  Musically,  the  organ 
has  a dignity  and  nobility  that  is  unique, 
and  architecturally  it  has  latent  possibili- 
ties for  the  development  of  these  same 
qualities. 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


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62 


ACOUSTICAL  CONSIDERATIONS  IN  CHURCH 

ARCHITECTURE 

By  WALLACE  C.  SABINE 


NO  other  problem  presents  to  the 
architect  acoustical  difficulties  in 
such  varied  form  as  that  of 
church  design.  Other  audi- 
toriums are  relatively  standardized,  and 
while  the  departures  within  this  stand- 
ardization may  be  such  as  to  produce 
good  or  bad  acoustical  results,  these 
departures  are  generally  along  few 
lines.  The  theatre,  the  lecture  room, 
and  the  concert  hall  are,  compared  with 
the  church,  almost  conventional,  and  the 
variations  are  in  a few  planes,  in  dimen- 
sions, and  in  decoration.  In  the  church, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  gamut,  in  size 
from  chapel  to  cathedral,  in  form  from 
the  American  church  architecture  of  the 
middle  nineteenth  century  to  the  ecclesi- 
astical architecture  of  Europe,  is  beyond 
parallel  in  any  other  type  of  auditorium. 
In  plan,  a church  may  be  circular  or 
square ; it  may  be  rectangular,  and 
broader  than  deep,  or,  longer,  and  very 
much  longer,  than  it  is  broad.  In  eleva- 
tion, its  ceiling  may  be  spherical,  or 
barrel  shaped,  or  plane,  it  may  be 
groined,  or  timbered;  it  may  be  a lantern, 
approached  by  plane  sloping  surfaces,  or 
flanked  and  supported  by  a cross  of  shal- 
low arches;  it  may  be  a nave,  with  or 
without  transept,  or  apse,  or  aisles. 
Almost  none  of  these,  or  of  the  many 
other  types  that  occur,  are  to  be  unquali- 
fiedly condemned,  and  all  may  be  adapted, 
though  with  varying  readiness,  to  give 
at  least  moderately  good  results.  Finally, 
to  cap  the  complexity,  the  problem  must 
concern  itself  both  with  speech  and  with 
music,  aspects  not  necessarily  inconsist- 
ent, but  certainly  not  identical. 

When  the  problem  is  so  infinitely  varied 
its  discussion,  in  order  to  be  so  complete 
as  to  be  a guide  in  design,  must  not 
merely  explain  the  general  principles 
but  must  follow  them  in  all  their  rami- 


fications. To  this  end  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  discuss  in  detail  such  subjects  as 
reverberation,  interference,  echo,  and 
resonance;  it  would  be  necessary  to  re- 
define them,  to  explain  the  methods  of 
their  determination  and  their  computa- 
tion, and  their  significance  in  arriving  at 
the  ultimate  solution.  It  is  out  of  the 
question  to  undertake  all  this  within  the 
space  of  the  present  paper ; it  is  possible, 
however,  to  explain  broadly  the  essential 
considerations  relating  to  church  acous- 
tics. 

It  is  necessary  to  emphasize  that  no 
single  feature  in  design  is  necessarily  in- 
corrigibly bad  from  the  standpoint  of 
acoustics,  or,  alone,  a guarantee  of  good 
results — neither  a detail,  such  as  a ceiling 
which  is  flat,  or  barrel  shaped,  plane  or 
coffered,  walls  which  are  broken  by 
columns,  by  pilasters,  or  plane,  not  large 
aspects  of  the  problem*  such  as  the  style 
of  architecture,  be  it  Romanesque,  Gothic, 
or  Colonial,  nor  indeed  even  the  size,  al- 
though this  is  more  difficult  to  control  by 
other  counterbalancing  features.  The 
problem  is  one  whose  ultimate  result 
depends  in  every  case  on  several  factors, 
on  size,  on  form,  in  large  and  in  detail, 
and  on  the  materials  employed  through- 
out in  the  construction.  For  example, 
a dome  intolerable  in  one  position  may 
in  another,  with  a different  radius  of 
curvature,  and  above  all  of  a different 
material  become  not  merely  tolerable  but 
positively  good.  The  Gothic  and  Roman- 
esque cathedrals  of  Europe  show  acous- 
tical difficulties  which  are  more  depen- 
dent on  the  materials  of  which  they  were 
composed  than  on  their  form,  difficulties 
which  are  not  unavoidable  with  materials 
which  are  known  today.  On  the  other 
hand,  early  Colonial  churches  were  on 
the  whole  acoustically  good,  better  indeed 
than  much  of  the  corresponding  English 


63 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Georgian,  because,  in  part  at  least,  of  the 
kind  of  plaster  employed  and  the  method 
of  its  application — a kind  no  longer  com- 
mon, and  a method  no  longer  possible. 

It  is  equally  necessary  to  emphasize 
the  fact  that  a considerable  acoustical  ef- 
fect can  be  accomplished  only  by  a con- 
siderable change  in  design  or  in  construc- 
tion. Very  insignificant  changes  are 
often  advanced  for  the  remedying  of 
large  and  often  fundamental  acoustical 
difficulties,  such,  for  example,  as  the 
stretching  of  wires,  the  rough  trowelling 
of  walls,  the  painting  or  the  sanding 
of  walls,  or  the  placing  about  the  room 
of  hollow  plaster  busts,  the  one  as  worth- 
less as  the  other.  It  has  even  been  pro- 
posed to  use  the  flow  of  air  for  the  venti- 
lating of  the  room  to  carry  the  sound 
from  the  speaker  to  different  parts  of  the 
audience.  Indeed,  one  may  find  in  some 
otherwise  very  creditable  discussions  of 
the  subject,  the  roughness  of  a wall  sur- 
face spoken  of  as  a factor  in  its  reflecting 
power.  As  a matter  of  fact  it  is  utterly 
inconceivable  that  any  finished  surface 
should  have  a texture  such  that  its  mere 
roughness  would  be  a factor  in  its  acous- 
tical quality.  To  look  for  such  an  effect 
is  to  ignore  on  the  one  hand  the  relatively 
great  length  of  the  waves  of  audible 
sound,  and  on  the  other  the  extremely 
small,  indeed  microscopic,  amplitude  of 
vibration  of  the  air.  By  the  same  reason- 
ing it  is  possible  to  show  that  the  stretch- 
ing of  wires  is  valueless.  Nor  is  it  diffi- 
cult to  show  that,  while  in  certain  audi- 
toriums and  in  certain  positions  statuary 
is  valuable,  it  is  so  not  because  it  is  hol- 
low, and  not  in  the  auditoriums  nor  in  the 
places  for  which  it  often  has  been  pro- 
posed. A notable  change  in  the  acousti- 
cal quality  of  an  auditorium  can  be  ac- 
complished only  by  a notable  change  in 
the  shape,  the  size,  or  in  the  materials 
employed  in  its  construction.  But  the 
important  thing  to  bear  in  mind  is  that 
the  value  of  the  latter,  as  a factor  for 
better  or  worse,  should  be  determined  not 
by  guesswork,  analogy,  or  even  loose 
qualitative  reasoning,  but  by  an  accurate 
quantitative  measurement  of  its  reflect- 
ing power.  With  this  data  in  hand,  it  is 
possible  to  determine  in  advance  of  con- 


struction the  exact  acoustical  quality 
which  will  result  from  any  fully  deter- 
mined design. 

Thus  it  is  possible  to  calculate  all  the 
physical  factors  that  go  to  determine  the 
quality  of  an  auditorium  and  to  express 
these  physical  magnitudes  numerically. 
It  is  possible  for  one  who  has  so  analyzed 
many  auditoriums  and  has  had  experi- 
ence of  them  to  know  the  quality  which 
such  figures  define  and  to  say  in  advance 
of  construction  whether  a hall  built  ac- 
cording to  a certain  design  will  be  good, 
bad  or  indifferent,  and  indeed  to  qualify 
these  grades.  But  this  is  not  sufficient. 
It  expresses  merely  his  opinion.  It  is 
true  that  his  judgment  may  be  excep- 
tionally well  trained ; it  probably  is.  But, 
nevertheless,  rather  should  it  be  possible 
to  say  whether  a particular  design  would 
result  in  a church  which  by  common  con- 
sent would  be  classified  as  having  a cer- 
tain quality.  Common  consent  is  obvi- 
ously a laborious  standard  to  establish  in 
any  field  of  inquiry.  It  is  especially  diffi- 
cult here  in  view  of  the  not  inconsiderable 
labor  involved  in  figuring  a single  church, 
the  number  of  churches  which  should 
be  examined,  and  the  great  variety  of 
standards.  For  a hall  designed  for 
orchestral  music  or  chamber  concerts  the 
task  is  by  no  means  so  formidable,  for 
the  number  of  competent  critics  whose 
opinion  is  worth  while  securing  and  the 
number  of  halls  worthy  of  analysis  is 
relatively  few.  Not  merely  does  the 
church  vary  more  in  type  and  in  the  serv- 
ice which  it  is  to  render,  but  the  com- 
petent critics  of  its  acoustical  quality  are 
much  more  numerous.  No  inconsiderable 
headway  has  been  made  in  this  task. 
Already  over  fifty  churches  have  been 
measured  and  analyzed,  preliminary  to 
their  correction,  and  most  valuable  data 
has  been  thus  secured.  But  such  material 
relates  to  the  lower  part  of  the  scale — 
to  churches  whose  normal  construction 
has  called  for  more  or  less  drastic  correc- 
tion. To  complete  the  scale  of  critical 
opinion  it  is  necessary  to  similarly  meas- 
ure and  analyze  churches  which  have  met 
with  approval  as  well  as  many  from  that 
large  number  which  are  indifferent  in 
quality.  It  should  be  possible  in  this  way 


64 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


to  establish  a scale  of  five  grades  of  very 
good,  good,  indifferent,  bad,  and  very  bad. 

It  is  easily  possible  to  lay  altogether 
too  great  stress  on  the  fact  that  the 
church  problem  is  one  which  concerns 
both  speech  and  music  and  that  the  best 
conditions  for  each  of  these  are  some- 
what different.  While  it  is  possible  to 
lay  too  great  stress  on  this  fact,  it  is  an 
even  greater  error  to  ignore  it  alto- 
gether. 

For  speech  two  qualities  alone  are 
essential,  loudness  and  clearness ; the  one 
cannot  be  obtained  except  somewhat  at 
the  expense  of  the  other.  The  reflections 
of  the  sound  from  even  the  nearer  walls 
and  ceiling  surfaces,  which  very  greatly 
re-enforce  the  loudness,  in  some  measure 
at  least  detract  from  its  clearness.  The 
determination  of  what  constitutes  good 
acoustical  quality  is  the  determination  of 
the  best  balance  between  these  two  con- 
flicting conditions.  The  extreme  condi- 
tion in  either  respect  is  bad.  Thus,  speak- 
ing out  of  doors  on  an  open  and  level 
plane  without  encircling  walls  or  trees  is 
a condition  in  which  the  distinctness  is 
wholly  unimpaired,  but  the  volume  of 
sound  is  insufficient  except  for  certain 
types  of  address.  On  the  other  hand, 
numerous  cases  are  within  the  experience 
of  every  one  in  which  loudness  is  secured 
at  the  excessive  expense  of  clearness.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  cite  examples;  it  is  a 
too  familiar  phenomenon.  In  brief, 
loudness  and  clearness  are  inter-depend- 
ent; one  is  desirable,  one  is  undesirable; 
and  good  design  consists  in  making  the 
loudness  of  the  distributed  sounds  as 
great  as  possible  consistent  with  not  ex- 
cessive echoes  or  reverberation. 

For  music  the  case  is  different ; for  here 
reverberation  has  a positive  value  of  its 
own.  Probably  under  no  condition  does 
music  sound  to  less  advantage  than  in  an 
unrestricted  space.  One  may  quote  so 
excellent  an  authority  as  Mr.  Geriske,  the 
former  conductor  of  the  Boston  Sym- 
phony Orchestra,  that  even  the  partial 
confinement  of  a city  street  greatly  en- 
hances the  music  of  a band.  Reverbera- 
tion has  not  merely  a slightly  sostenuto 
effect,  introducing  a delicate  harmony 
into  even  single  part  melodic  composi- 


tion, but  also  enriches  the  harmony  of 
full  part  music,  and  above  all  serves  to 
take  from  music  a thin  staccato  quality 
which  is  perhaps  best  realized  by  com- 
paring, even  if  only  in  imagination,  a 
piano  played  indoors  and  out  of  doors  far 
from  any  limiting  walls.  In  moderation, 
reverberation  enriches  the  harmony, 
renders  the  tones  more  full,  and  rounds 
out  the  attack.  In  excess,  it  so  prolongs 
the  tones  that  harmony  becomes  discord 
and  the  rounding  of  the  attack  becomes 
its  complete  obliteration.  Thus  in  music 
reverberation  is  present  not  by  suffer- 
ance, but  by  intention ; by  good  design  it 
is  present  to  an  accurately  determined 
degree.  Churches  illustrative  of  the  ex- 
tremes, of  too  little  and  too  great  rever- 
beration, are  Saint  John  in  Cambridge, 
and  Saint  John  the  Divine  in  New  York. 

While  loudness  on  the  one  hand  and 
echo  and  reverberation  on  the  other  are 
determining  considerations  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  there  are  two  other  phases 
of  the  acoustical  problem  which  occasion- 
ally become  important  factors, — interfer- 
ence, not  infrequently,  and,  though  far 
more  rarely,  resonance.  Indeed  all  five, 
loudness,  echo,  reverberation,  interfer- 
ence, and  resonance  are  factors  in  every 
acoustical  problem.  In  any  particular 
case  their  importance  in  the  order 
named  is  inversely  as  the  size  of  the  audi- 
torium. It  is  obvious,  without  argument, 
that  the  difficulty  of  securing  adequate 
loudness  and  of  avoiding  excessive  echoes 
is  greatest  in  a verj?-  large  auditorium; 
and,  other  things  being  equal,  reverbera- 
tion is  proportional  to  the  linear  dimen- 
sions. On  the  other  hand,  interference 
exists  only  when  some  of  the  sounds  re- 
flected from  the  walls  or  ceiling  surfaces 
are  coincident,  at  least  in  part,  with  the 
sound  which  has  come  direct.  Only  when 
the  difference  in  paths  travelled  is  slight 
do  the  sounds  overlap;  and  only  when 
they  overlap  do  they  interfere.  Obvi- 
ously thus,  interference  is  a pronounced 
factor  just  in  proportion  as  the  distances 
to  some  of  the  wall  or  ceiling  surfaces 
are  small  measured  from  either  the 
speaker  or  the  audience,  and,  therefore, 
that  the  smaller  the  auditorium  the 
greater  the  phenomenon  of  interference 


65 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


as  a factor  in  that  aggregate  which  is 
called  its  acoustics.  Finally  resonance, 
using  this  word  in  its  true  sense,  is  the 
reaction  of  the  reflected  sounds  on  the 
speaker  himself.  It  is  obvious  in  this  case 
that  the  distance  of  the  wall  surfaces 
from  the  audience  is  immaterial,  and  that 
only  the  distance  from  the  speaker  is  a 
factor.  Only  in  a very  small  room  or 
where  there  is  a convergence  of  surfaces 
near  the  speaker  is  resonance  an  im- 
portant consideration. 

Reverberation  and  resonance  affect 
equally  the  audition  in  all  parts  of  a 
church.  Local  difficulties  and  the  so- 
called  deaf  spots  are  due  to  the  other  two 
adverse  factors,  echo  and  interference. 
In  by  far  the  greater  number  of  cases 
where  such  singularities  are  pronounced 
the  difficulty  is  due  to  a combination  of 
echoes.  These  echoes  are  generally  not 
distinguishable  from  the  direct  speech, 
but  nevertheless  come  at  so  long  an  inter- 
val as  not  to  serve  to  re-enforce  the  voice 
which  has  come  directly  from  the 
speaker.  This  aspect  of  the  localized 
problem  calls  for  little  discussion  of  a 
general  nature;  it  is  an  obvious  factor. 
The  other  factor,  interference,  calls  per- 
haps for  some  explanation.  If  a key  on 
the  organ  is  held  depressed  while  coupled 
by  the  drawn  stop  to  a relatively  pure 
toned  pipe  such  as  a wooden  diapason  or 
metal  gemshorn  the  phenomenon  of  inter- 
ference is  easily  observed.  At  any  one 
point  the  sound  is  constant,  but  varies 
when  the  observer  moves  there  being 
regions  of  silence  not  far  from  regions 
of  relatively  great  loudness.  This  phe- 
nomenon is  due  to  the  fact  that  two 
sounds  of  the  same  pitch  arriving  at  a 
fixed  point  may  re-enforce  each  other  or 
may  neutralize  each  other  according  to 
the  manner  in  which  the  waves  coalesce. 
This  system  of  distributed  intensities 
varies  with  the  pitch,  the  distances  from 
maximum  to  minimum  being  generally 
the  greater  the  lower  the  note.  In  articu- 
late speech  the  characteristic  notes, 
which  are  by  no  means  the  ground  notes 
of  the  voice,  change  with  great  rapidity. 


and  the  resulting  interference  systems 
have  time  to  form  coincident  with  the 
direct  speech  only  when  the  room  is  small 
or  the  distance  of  the  reflecting  surfaces 
short.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  phe- 
nomenon of  interference  is  not  a more 
troublesome  factor  in  architectural 
acoustics  and  that  it  is  only  under  special 
circumstances  that  it  contributes  to  the 
formation  of  the  so-called  deaf  spots. 

The  whole  development  in  building  ma- 
terials and  in  methods  of  construction 
during  the  past  thirty  years  has  been  in 
such  a direction  as  to  make  the  chance  of 
satisfactory  acoustical  results  in  a 
church,  if  the  acoustics  be  left  to  chance, 
scarcely  a third  of  what  they  were  thirty 
or  forty  years  ago,  even  leaving  out  of 
account,  although  this  is  fairly  within  the 
reckoning,  an  increased  dignity  in  ecclesi- 
astical architecture  in  America  and  a 
development  of  its  forms  on  a more 
generous  scale.  One  may  cite  the  in- 
creased use  of  stone  and  cement,  or  that 
plaster  is  more  often  applied  directly  to 
the  tile  and  brick  where  formerly  it  was 
held  from  the  wall  on  ’studding.  More- 
over it  is  now  applied  in  thickness  two 
or  three  times  as  great  as  formerly;  and 
for  the  sake  of  quick  setting  and  drying, 
patent  hard  plaster  is  used  instead  of  the 
old  mortar  plaster.  Each  of  these  im- 
provements is  admirable  and  has  its  entire 
justification  in  other  considerations.  But 
while  these  mechanical  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  good  acoustics  have  increased 
ttiere  has  on  the  other  hand  been  an  in- 
creased demand  for  good  acoustical  qual- 
ity, partly  because  of  a greater  emphasis 
on  the  sermon  and  the  spoken  service, 
partly  because  of  an  increased  impatience 
on  the  part  of  the  congregation  with  the 
necessity  for  excessive  effort  in  giving 
sustained  attention.  It  is  an  exceedingly 
interesting  observation  that  this  insist- 
ence on  the  importance  of  the  spoken 
service  is  quite  as  great  in  the  ritualistic 
churches  as  in  others.  These  two  conflict- 
ing tendencies  have  between  them  greatly 
increased  the  severity  of  the  architect’s 
problem. 


66 


STAINED  AND  PAINTED  GLASS 

By  GEORGE  HERBERTSON  CHARLES 


Windows  in  colored  glass, 
leaded,  have  long  been  known, 
popularly  and  technically  as 
“stained  glass  windows,”  but 
the  term  is  not  comprehensive,  as  all 
colors,  with  the  exception  of  a true 
yellow  stain  obtained  by  silver  salts, 
are  colored  in  the  pot  when  the  glass 
is  made,  or  white  glasses  are  flashed 
with  thin  coatings  of  colored  glass.  Most 
reds  are  obtained  by  the  latter  method. 

Both  colored  and 
white  glasses  are 
painted  and  leaded, 
and  the  distinctive 
features  of  stained 
glass  windows  are, 
in  fact,  more  ac- 
curately described 
by  the  terms 
“painted  and 
leaded.’’ 

This  noble  craft 
has  inspired  lovers 
of  growing  color 
since  primitive  col- 
ored glass  was 
made,  and  the 
happy  expedient  of 
enlisting  the 
blessed  light-o’- 
the-sun  to  vitalize 
an  artist’s  expres- 
sion was  first  em- 
ployed. 

To  those  who  re- 
spond to  its  distinctive  appeal,  all  other 
mediums  seem  at  times  tame  and  inef- 
fectual by  comparison.  It  alone,  among 
the  materials  with  which  we  are  familiar, 
offers  the  singing  splendor  of  pure  trans- 
parent color  transfused  with  light. 

Its  very  limitations,  in  the  hands  of 
those  who  love  it,  but  add  to  its  power 
and  charm.  The  intense  blacks  of  leads 
and  stay-bars  are  ideal  settings  for  the 
jewel-like  color  and  lustrous  whites  of  a 
well-composed  window. 

Nowhere  is  this  more  apparent  than  in 
the  masterpieces  of  the  twelfth  and  thir- 


teenth centuries,  when  the  difficulties 
which  faced  the  artist  and  craftsman 
were  so  largely  in  evidence.  Glass  was 
made  only  in  small  pieces,  the  palette 
was  limited,  and  it  was  well-nigh  impossi- 
ble to  match  colors  accurately  in  different 
pots.  Naturally,  too,  many  mistakes  were 
made  in  attempting  various  colors,  so 
that  instead  of  being  lured  into  mechani- 
cal repetition,  or  staid  and  scholarly 
formulae,  the  maker  of  windows  was 

kept  vivid  and 
fresh,  and  “being 
bound  in  the  flesh 
was  set  free  in  the 
spirit.” 

Consider  any 
one  of  the  rich 
treasures  of 
Chartres,  of  Bour- 
ges  or  of  Reims. 
Is  it  not  true  that 
many  of  its  rare 
virtues  are  to  be 
traced  to  these 
very  limitations? 
Of  course  their 
value  was  in  a 
sense  negative,  and 
without  the  pro- 
pelling force  of  a 
genius  for  rela- 
tively perfect  ex- 
pression in  color, 
no  worthy  result 
would  have  been 
achieved.  The  important  point  to  con- 
sider is,  that  with  later  improved  facili- 
ties, when  the  artist  was  no  longer 
“hampered”  by  such  limitations,  he  was 
led  far  afield,  and  left  the  glories  of  that 
day  for  the  polished  and  inept  trivialities, 
the  mechanical  and  tiresome  accuracies, 
with  which  we  are  all  too  familiar. 

It  is  useless  to  attempt  to  discount  the 
achievements  made  in  the  production  of 
any  material  for  which  there  is  a legiti- 
mate use.  The  enlarged  palette  and  other 
increased  facilities,  offered  to  the  artist 
who  works  in  glass,  should  be  encourag- 


67 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


ing  and  enlightening,  rather  than  con- 
fusing. 

Results  are  disastrous  only  when, 
tempted  by  an  almost  unlimited  range  of 
color,  and  by  an  alluring  array  of  devices 
to  disguise  the  rugged  verities  of  his 
craft,  he  forgets  the  fundamental  princi- 
ples on  which  it  is  founded. 

These  principles  could  not  be  stated 
more  clearly  or  more  accurately  than  in 


in  which  one  seeks  to  render  the  eifects 
of  linear  and  aerial  perspective,  of  light 
and  shade  with  all  their  transitions,  on 
a panel  of  transparent  colors,  is  an  under- 
taking as  daring  as  to  attempt  to  render 
the  effect  of  the  human  voice  with 
stringed  instruments.  Different  proc- 
esses, different  conditions,  different 
branches  of  art.  In  an  opaque  painting, 
in  a picture,  the  radiation  of  the  colors  is 


SECTION  OF  A MODERN  WINDOW  BY  CHRISTOPHER  WHALL,  IN  GLOUCESTER  CATHEDRAL 


the  following  words  from  the  “Vitraib’  of 
Viollet  le  Due. 

“What  have  been  lost  or  forgotten  dur- 
ing many  centuries  are  the  true  manners 
which  alone  are  suitable  to  painting  of 
glass;  manners  dictated  by  study  of  the 
effect  of  light  and  optics;  manners  per- 
fectly understood  and  employed  by  the 
glass  painters  of  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries,  neglected  from  the  fif- 
teenth century  on,  and  afterwards  dis- 
dained, in  spite,  as  we  have  said,  of  the 
immutable  laws  imposed  by  light  and 
optics.  To  try  and  reproduce  what  is 
called  a picture,  that  is  to  say,  a painting 


absolutely  under  the  control  of  the 
painters,  who,  by  halftones,  shadows  of 
diverse  intensity  and  values,  according  to 
the  different  planes,  can  diminish  or  aug- 
ment it  at  will.  The  radiation  of  trans- 
parent colors  in  glass  cannot  be  thus 
modified  by  the  artist ; whose  whole  talent 
consists  in  profiting  by  it  to  work  out  a 
harmonic  scheme  on  a single  plane,  like  a 
rug,  not  in  working  out  effects  of  aerial 
perspective. 

“In  spite  of  all  that  one  can  do,  a glass 
window  never  does  and  never  could  rep- 
resent more  than  a single  plane,  it  loses 
its  true  qualities  except  under  that  condi- 


68 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


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GREAT  WEST  WINDOW,  PROCTOR  HALL,  GRADUATE  COLLEGE,  PRINCETON  UNIVERSITY 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 
DESIGNED  AND  EXECUTED  BY  WM.  WILLETT  AND  ANNIE  LEE  WILLETT 


69 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


tion,  every  attempt  made  to  present  to  the 
eye  a series  of  planes  destroys  the  har- 
mony of  the  colors  without  producing 
any  illusion  for  the  spectator.  . . . 

Transparent  painting  can  never  aim  to  be 
anything  but  a drawing  or  design  second- 


tion  of  custom  or  blind  affection  for  an 
art  which  we  might  try  to  maintain  in  its 
archaism,  as  is  sometimes  asserted;  it  is 
an  absolute  question,  since  (we  cannot  re- 
peat it  too  often)  it  is  one  decided  by 
physical  laws  whereof  we  can  change  no 


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MEMORIAL  WINDOW,  “SERMON  ON  THE  MOUNT”,  MEMORIAL  CHURCH  OF  ST.  PAUL, 

OVERBROOK,  PA. 


ing  as  energetically  as  possible  a harmony 
in  colors,  and,  when  it  is  so  treated  the 
result  is  successful.  To  try  and  intro- 
duce the  peculiar  characteristics  of 
opaque  painting  into  transparent  paint- 
ing, is  to  lose  the  precious  qualities  of  the 
transparent  painting  without  possible 
compensation.  This  is  not  at  all  a ques- 


whit.  You  will  never  be  able  to  make  a 
guitar  sing  like  Rubini,  and  although 
some  people  take  pleasure  in  listening  to 
the  overture  of  William  Tell  played  on 
the  flageolet,  that  can  scarcely  be  the 
taste  of  true  music  lovers.” 

The  sincerity  and  good  taste  of  many 
present  day  architects  have  done  much  to 


70 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


restore  respect  for  this  decorative  art  so 
closely  related  to  architecture.  Their 
influences  are  to  be  felt  in  a renewed,  in- 
telligent interest  in  great  achievements 
of  the  past,  and  in  a growing  demand  for 
work  by  inspired  artists  and  craftsmen 


today.  This  is,  of  course,  as  it  should  be, 
for  the  first  consideration  of  the  maker 
of  windows  should  have  to  do  with  the 
building  which  is  to  contain  them.  The 
problem  of  church  lighting,  while  it  re- 
veals fascinating  possibilities,  offers 
sobering  responsibilities  which  architect 
and  “glassman”  must  share. 


In  no  other  decorative  medium  are  suc- 
cesses more  gratifying  in  their  power  to 
enhance  the  distinctive  character  and 
beauty  of  an  interior,  nor  are  any  other 
failures  so  fatal  to  the  efforts  of  the  archi- 
tect, and  of  all  who  may  have  striven  with 
him,  to  glorify  and  enrich  the 
inner  fabric  of  a church  edifice. 

So  obvious  a fact  should 
scarcely  need  to  be  mentioned; 
but  when  we  recall  the  vast  num- 
ber of  unsuccessful  windows  in 
the  churches  of  our  cities  and 
towns,  naturally  the  architects’ 
knowledge  and  judgment  in  re- 
spect to  them  are  sure  to  be 
questioned. 

A comparatively  recent  report 
by  the  Committee  of  Education 
of  the  American  Institute  of 
Architects  has  ably  suggested 
the  dilemma  which  faces  the 
American  Architect  in  his  effort 
to  secure  the  efficient  co-opera- 
tion of  American  Craftsmen. 

‘‘In  the  good  old  days  when  an 
architectural  monument  was  a 
plexus  of  all  the  arts,  the  archi- 
tect was  pretty  much  at  the 
mercy  of  the  craftsman,  and  he 
still  is,  with  a difference,  for 
then  every  bit  of  sculpture  or 
painting  or  carving  or  metal 
work  and  joinery,  and  glass  and 
needle  work,  when  these  latter 
came  into  play,  enhanced  the 
architecture,  glorified  it,  and 
sometimes  redeemed  it  as  well; 
now  either  our  carving  is  butch- 
ered, our  sculpture  and  painting 
conceived  on  lines  that  deny  their 
architectural  setting,  our  metal 
work  turned  out  by  the  commer- 
cial ton,  our  stained-glass  work 
defiant  of  every  law  of  God,  man 
or  architect,  or  it  is  all  reduced 
to  a dead  level  of  technical 
plausibility,  without  an  atom  of  feel- 
ing or  artistry — and  we  are  glad  to 
take  it  this  way  for  the  sake  of  escaping 
worse.” 

These  words  should  have  the  thought- 
ful consideration  of  all  who  are  interested 
in  window-making,  for  they  present,  per- 
haps rather  too  darkly,  a situation  that 


71 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


AT  LEFT CROCKER  MEMORIAL  WINDOW,  ST.  GABRIEL’S  CHURCH,  MARION,  MASS. 

MESSRS.  SHEPLEY,  RUTAN  & COOLIDGE,  ARCHITECTS 


72 


AT  FRAGMENT  OF  A WINDOW  AT  NEWTON  CENTER,  MASS. 

DESIGNED  AND  EXECUTED  BY  MR.  C.  J.  CONNICK 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


has  long  been  particularly  evident  in  re- 
views of  the  work  of  our  shops  and 
studios. 

Another  aspect  is  equally  worthy  of 
presentation.  There  are  men  in  prac- 
tically every  large  city,  who  are  striving 
earnestly  to  express,  sincerely  and 
frankly,  the  high  ideals  which  this 
medium  might  well  be  expected  to  evoke. 
Some  of  them  are  working  under  pro- 
nounced difficulties,  many  are  struggling 
against  unequal  and  unfair 
competitive  conditions ; all 
sorely  need  recognition,  direc- 
tion, and  encouragement. 

Thoughtful  architects  have 
recently,  with  praiseworthy 
far-sightedness,  searched  out 
just  such  artist-craftsmen, 
and  results  have  not  only 
justified  their  efforts,  but 
have  led  to  marked  changes 
of  most  splendid  promise. 

It  is  also  their  manifest  in- 
tention, when  confronted  with 
the  problem  of  church  light- 
ing, to  study  glass  and  lead 
and  paint  in  varying  stages 
as  they  are  wrought  into 
windows,  at  first  hand,  in  the 
studio  and  workshop. 

_ One  of  the  first  things  they 
discover  is  that  the  making 
of  glass  in  rich,  pure  color 
such  as  was  used  by  the 
masters  of  old,  is  no  lost  art, 
as  many  writers  on  the  sub- 
ject may  have  led  them  to  be- 
lieve. What  is  lost  is  the 
widely  diffused  love  for  it, 
and  the  consequent  small  de- 
mand for  such  colors  from 
the  glass  makers  themselves. 

When  the  windows  de- 
signed by  Burne-Jones  for  St. 

Philip’s  Church  in  Birming- 
ham were  made  some  twenty 
years  ago,  but  little  difficulty 
was  found  in  securing  pris- 
maitc  colors  which  rivaled  the 
glories  of  the  famous  glass  in 
Chartres.  The  glass  used 
was  “antique,”  in  sheets,  fur- 
nished by  a well  known  Lon- 
don glass  firm.  The  windows 


are  now  universally  recognized  as  ex- 
amples of  noble  thought  and  work,  car- 
ried to  the  pitch  of  perfection  in  design, 
and  comparable  to  the  best  work  of  the 
masters  of  old  in  full,  true  color. 

Later  when  Christopher  Whall,  Louis 
Davis  and  other  ardent  lovers  of  the 
craft  demanded  glass  more  nearly  resem- 
bling that  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries,  glassmakers  in  England  were 
remarkably  successful  in  producing  ma- 


CLERESTORY  WINDOW,  TRINITY  CHURCH, 
ASBURY  PARK,  N.  J. 

EXECUTED  BY  HEINIGKE  & BOWEN 


73 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


“THE  LAST  JUDGMENT” 

WINDOW  BY  SIR  EDWARD  BURNE-JONES  IN  ST.  PHILIP’S 
CHURCH,  BIRMINGHAM.  ENGLAND 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


THE  GREAT  CHANCEL  WINDOW.  FOURTH  PRESBYTERIAN 
CHURCH,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

DESIGNED  AND  EXECUTED  BY  CHARLES  J.  CONNICK 
CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  & HOWARD  VAN  DOREN  SHAW, 
ASSOCIATED  ARCHITECTS 


terial  which  left  but  little  to  be  desired. 

This  glass  is  known  variously  as 
“Bottle  Glass,”  “Norman  Glass”  and 
“Norman  Slabs,”  and  is  made  of  compara- 
tively small  masses  of  glass,  blown  and 
whirled  into  bull’s-eye  glass,  or  blown 
into  shapes  which  are  broken  when 
cooled,  into  oblongs  or  slabs  of  varying 
thickness. 

To  those  familiar  with  the  thorough 
and  painstaking  treatise  of  Theophilus, 
and  with  the  exhaustive  “Vitrail”  of 
Viollet  le  Due,  this  will  be  seen  to  re- 
semble closely  the  essential  methods  of 


the  early  glassmakers. 

The  latter  authority 
wrote  in  this  connection, 
as  follows : 

“From  the  decorative 
standpoint,  the  bull’s- 
eye  glasses,  or  those 
roughly  spread  out,  pre- 
sent an  advantage.  Since 
these  glasses  were  col- 
ored in  the  mass,  at 
least  during  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries 
(with  the  exception  of 
the  red) ; the  difference 
in  thickness  of  the  plates 
of  glass  caused  gradua- 
tions in  tone,  which  the 
glazers  employed  with 
great  skill  by  cutting 
the  glass  so  that  the 
thinner  pieces  came  at 
the  lighter  parts  of  the 
design.  Even  in  solid 
backgrounds  these  vari- 
ations in  thickness  gave 
an  appearance  of  chang- 
ing lustre  to  the  colors 
which,  at  a distance, 
augments  singularly  the 
intensity  of  the  tones. 
All  colorists  know  that 
to  give  a color  its  full 
value,  it  must  be  pre- 
sented to  the  eye  only  in 
little  pieces,  in  bursts, 
so  to  speak.” 

So  widespread  has  the 
soft  attraction  of  dull 
and  safe  neutral  colors 
become,  that  these  won- 
derful glasses  are  comparatively  un- 
known in  this  country.  The  reason  for 
timidity  on  the  part  of  American  de- 
signers and  makers  of  windows  is 
perfectly  obvious.  The  light  to  which 
windows  are  here  subjected  is  intense  to 
the  point  of  harshness,  and  an  unhappy 
juxtaposition  of  pure  color  results  in  a 
lusty  discord  of  terrific  power. 

The  tendency  has  been,  therefore,  to 
nullify  and  obscure  the  light,  and  this  in- 
clination is  doubtless  responsible  for  the 
introduction  of  the  so-called  opalescent 
glass,  which,  notwithstanding  its  long 


75 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


THE  LOWER  HALF  OF  THE  PRODIGAL  SON 
WINDOW  IN  THE  CATHEDRAL  AT  BRUGES. 
A FAMOUS  EXAMPLE  OF  THE  MEDALLION 
WINDOWS  OF  THE  XIII  CENTURY 

DRAWN  BY  CHARLES  J.  CONNICK 


period  of  favor  among  us,  was  never  ac- 
cepted seriously  by  European  craftsmen. 

One  reason  why  opalescent  glass  con- 
tinued its  American  vogue  for  so  long 
was  that  English  windows  designed  for  a 
softer  light,  in  whites  and  colors  more  or 
less  neutral  in  tone,  were  fairly  shot  to 
pieces  by  our  powerful  light. 

It  came  to  be  quite  generally  accepted 
that  “Antique”  glass  was  too  thin  and 
transparent  for  use  in  American  win- 
dows, and  opalescent  glass,  opaque  and 
rather  undefined  in  color,  was  for  a time 
looked  upon  as  our  own  distinctive  and 
adequate  material. 

In  many  instances  English  painted 
windows  were  plated  on  the  outside  with 
huge  sheets  of  opalescent  glass,  and  the 
heterogeneous  mass  resulting,  was  suc- 
cessful at  least  in  obscuring  the  light. 

This  problem  is  not  a new  one.  In 
parts  of  France,  and  in  some  few  in  Eng- 
land, an  intense  light  has  demanded  the 
thoughtful  consideration  of  the  window 


artist.  Therefore,  the  solutions  he  of- 
fered are  extremely  interesting  to  us. 
The  representative  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
century  windows  would  seem  to  have 
answered  gloriously  in  their  color  alone 
all  requirements  for  subdued  light;  but 
if  they  could  at  once  be  divested  of  the 
dust  of  centuries,  and  of  the  curious 
erosions  which  atmospheric  conditions 
have  wrought,  the  skill  of  the  painter- 
designer  in  utilizing  intense  light  to  ad- 


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TRANSEPT  WINDOW,  HOUSE  OF  HOPE 
CHURCH,  CHICAGO 

CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 
EXECUTED  BY  YOUNG  & BONAWITS 


76 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


vantage  would  be  more  clearly  revealed. 

Viollet  le  Due  was  unquestionably  right 
in  his  contention  that  the  twelfth  century 
glass  painter  had  a perfect  understand- 
ing of  the  laws  governing  radiation  of 
color,  and  these  words,  inspired  by  an 
artists’  joy  in  full  color  and  tempered 
with  scientific  knowledge,  are  indispen- 
sable in  this  connection. 

“These  artists  knew  first,  that  tones 


have  only  a relative  value;  second,  that 
the  radiation  of  certain  transparent  colors 
is  such  that  it  alters  or  modifies  the  qual- 
ity of  these  colors  themselves ; third,  that 
painting  applied  on  glass  should,  even  in 
the  most  heavily  shaded  parts,  allow  the 
neutra,!  tone  to  be  seen,  not  through  a film 
but  by  bits  of  pure  color;  because  a 
shadow  which  completely  covers  a col- 
ored glass  gives,  at  a distance,  an  opaque 
tone  that  does  not  partake  of  the  real 


color  of  the  glass  but  rather  of  that  of  the 
neighboring  colors,  in  accordance  with 
their  radiating  properties.” 

It  seems  curiously  significant  that,  al- 
though the  successful  treatment  of  win- 
dows in  strong  light  by  the  Old  Masters 
in  glass  has  long  been  appreciated  by  our 
traveled  architects,  students  and  inter- 
ested laymen,  no  such  simple  statement  of 
obvious  facts  as  that  quoted  above  seems 
to  have  been  well  circulated 
among  the  American  artists 
in  glass  up  to  a comparatively 
recent  time- 

The  realization  that  strong 
light  is  a glory  they  may  util- 
ize nobly,  rather  than  a force 
they  must  painfully  neutral- 
ize and  curtain,  is  dawning 
upon  our  “glass  men,”  and 
this  is  the  most  promising  of 
all  the  hopeful  signs  within 
the  craft  today. 

It  is  now  more  generally 
felt  that  windows  are  de- 
signed to  admit  light  and 
that  whether  they  face  the 
splendor  of  our  mid-day  sun, 
or  have  a less  intense  north 
light,  the  principle  remains 
the  same.  The  consideration 
of  pictorial  possibilities  is  no 
longer  allowed  entirely  to  dis- 
place the  artist’s  allegiance  to 
this  principle.  There  remains 
little  question  but  that  trans- 
parent colored  or  white  glass 
(painted,  as  we  have  noted, 
so  that  the  light  is  “stopped 
down”  but  not  obscured  in 
heavy  masses),  is  the  logical 
medium  to  use  in  the  making 
of  stained  and  painted  glass 
windows. 

This  glass  in  sheets  is  known  as 
“antique,”  and  the  better  grades  of  it  are 
made  in  England,  as  are  also  the  lustrous 
“bottle  glass”  and  “Norman  glass,”  to 
which  we  have  referred.  Happily,  owing 
to  the  tendency  toward  radiation,  these 
glasses,  when  painted  in  spots  or  lines, 
rather  than  in  tones  or  masses,  gain  in 
vitality  and  in  depth  and  richness  of 
color  as  the  light  is  intensified. 

So  marked  is  this  tendency  that  a win- 

77 


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WINDOW,  ST.  MARK’S  CHURCH,  FRANKFORD, 
PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

THE  D’ASCENZO  STUDIOS 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


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DETAIL  OF  CHANCEL  WINDOW,  ALL  SOULS’  CHURCH,  BANGOR,  ME. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITEGTS  DESIGNED  AND  EXECUTED  BY  MR.  C.  J.  CONNICK 


78 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


ST.  THOMAS  A BECKET.  FROM  THE  WINDOW 
IN  BEAUCHAMP  CHAPEL,  WARWICK, 

XV  CENTURY 

DRAWN  BY  CHARLES  J.  CONNICK 


dow  in  full  color,  heavily  painted,  when 
seen  in  a strong  light,  gives  little  sugges- 
tion of  dull  black  in  the  heavy  lines  of 
dark  neutral  paint  which  have  been  fused 
into  its  surface.  They,  with  the  substan- 
tial leads  and  sturdy  stay-bars  are  so  in- 
fluenced by  the  color  radiation  that  their 
very  blackness,  greatly  reduced  in  area, 
assumes  the  quiet  lustre  of  intense  dark 
color. 

In  relation  to  this  fact,  Viollet  le  Due 
observes:  “Transparent  light  devours 


so  easily  the  opaque  parts,  such  as  the 
irons,  leads  and  the  heavy  lineaments, 
that  the  painter  must  pay  most  careful 
heed  to  this  phenomenon.  On  the  other 
hand  this  influence  of  light  cannot  be 
counteracted  by  simply  enlarging  the 
shadows  beyond  measure,  for  then  he 
only  succeeds  in  making  dark  spots  which 
destroy  the  form  instead  of  accenting  it. 
However,  in  spite  of  this  devouring  fac- 
ulty of  light,  the  least  line  out  of  place,  at 


SKETCH  FOR  LEADED  GLASS  WINDOW— 
CHRIST  HEALING  THE  SICK,  ST.  JOHN’S 
CHURCH,  CYNWYD,  PA. 


79 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


variance  with  the  form,  shocks  the  eye 
more  than  it  could  do  in  an  opaque  paint- 
ing; all  of  which  demonstrates  that  in 


FRAGMENT— SEVEN  LIBERAL  ARTS  OF  CHRIS- 
TIAN LEARNING,  POST  GRADUATE 
COLLEGE,  PRINCETON 

DESIGNED  AND  EXECUTED  BY  WILLIAM  WILLET 
AND  ANNIE  LEE  WILLET 


painting  on  glass  all  lines,  no  matter  how 
delicate,  have  their  value.  If  they  are 
correctly  placed  they  can  hardly  be  per- 
ceived, if  they  are  placed  contrary  to  the 
form  they  torment  the  eye.” 


Color-photography  has  brought  forth 
this  fact  in  a most  convincing  manner, 
and  a successful  transparency  is  most  en- 
lightening in  its  accurate  record  of  color 
radiations  in  stained  glass  windows. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  chapters  in 
the  history  of  painted  glass  has  to  do  with 
the  reaction,  evident  late  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  to  mark  the  protest  against  dark 
interiors  which  were  inevitable  when 
windows  in  full  color  were  used  through- 
out a church  edifice. 

The  manner  in  which  the  response  was 


AISLE  WINDOW  IN  OLD  ST.  MARK’S  CHURCH, 
NEW  YORK 

EXECUTED  BY  HEINIGKE  & BOWEN 


80 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


made  to  the  demand  for  more  light  again 
awakens  our  admiration  for  the  crafts- 
men of  that  period.  Although,  a type  of 


CENTRAL  WINDOW  OF  APSE,  LADY  CHAPEL, 
LIVERPOOL  CATHEDRAL 

grisaille,  entirely  in  white  glasses,  leaded 
in  small  pieces  with  little  or  no  paint,  was 
known  early  in  the  twelfth  century,  it 
remained  for  the  artist  of  a later  period 
to  add  bands  and  spots  of  pure  color,  so 


that  it  took  its  place  logically  in  edifices 
containing  important  windows  in  full 
color,  and  was  often  used  effectively  as  a 
coherent  part  of  windows  containing 
colored  medallions  and  figures. 


WINDOW,  DESIGNED  AND  EXECUTED  BY 
YOUNG  & BONAWILS 

One  great  secret  of  the  beauty  and  ef- 
fectiveness of  grisaille  is,  of  course,  the 
strict  adherence  of  its  designers  to  the 
same  principles  of  light  and  optics  that 
marked  their  wonderful  successes  in  the 
use  of  color. 

On  the  field  of  varying  tones  of  whites, 


81 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


the  light  is  broken  by  flowing  lines  and 
by  delicate  lattices  or  hatchings,  and  the 
flashes  of  color,  especially  the  reds  and 
yellows,  are  left  practically  clear  of  paint. 

It  is  a curious  fact  that 
this  truly  beautiful  type  of 
painted  glass  was,  until  re- 
cently, represented  in 
America  by  crude  examples 
done  mechanically,  and  en- 
tirely lacking  in  the  silvery 
lustre  and  charming  bursts 
of  color  which  distinguish 
the  old-world  grisaille.  To- 
day many  American 
churches  are  enriched  by 
grisaille,  wrought  sympa- 
thetically in  the  exquisite 
textures  consistent  with  its 
highest  possibilities,  and 
painted  with  due  regard  for 
varying  intensities  of  light. 

Its  cost  is  so  moderate 
that,  in  many  instances,  a 
type  of  it  is  used  for  tem- 
porary glass,  and  thus  the 
violent  glare,  so  distasteful 
to  architect  and  layman,  is 
most  pleasantly  avoided. 

It  is  not  within  the  range 
of  this  article,  if  indeed  it  be 
possible  in  any  form  of  ex- 
pression, to  define  the  endur- 
ing beauty  and  charm  of  a 
worthy  achievement  in 
stained  and  painted  glass. 

As  well  attempt  to 

"‘Write  in  a hook  the  morning’s 
prime 

Or  match  with  words  a tender 
sky.” 

Its  great,  if  not  its  greatest 
distinction  lies  in  color;  and 
certainly  no  rules  thus  far 
formulated  have  furnished 
the  subtle  guiding  influences  ' 
which  would  produce, 

through  cool  intellectual 
processes,  the  glow  and  thrill 
of  a true  color  composition. 


A 


WINDOW,  CHURCH  OF 
THE  HOLY  FAITH, 
LOS  ANGELES, 
CAL. 

EXECUTED  BY  .TAMES 
FREDERICK  RUDY 


The  tendency  to  copy  faithfully  the 
work  of  the  early  masters  does  not  lead 
necessarily  either  to  sure  success  or  to 
certain  failure.  Many  windows  of  gen- 
uine charm  have  so  closely 
followed  mediaeval  types  as 
to  be  frankly  archeological 
in  their  most  direct  appeal. 
There  is  much  to  be  said  for 
such  windows,  especially  at 
this  time  when  the  true  dig- 
nity of  composition  in  lead 
and  glass  is  only  beginning 
to  be  broadly  appreciated. 

It  is  essential  to  revert  to 
early  schools  of  window- 
making, not  primarily  to 
copy  drawing  or  composition 
(although  a kno^vledge  of 
both  is  necessary),  but 
rather  we  are  inspired  by 
the  discovery  that,  in  their 
acceptance  of  the  broad 
principles  on  which  the  craft 
is  founded,  they  were  un- 
swervingly right,  and  that 
they  were  creative  artists  of 
wonderful  distinction  and 
power. 

It  is  the  lofty  spirit  that 
inspired  the  artists  of  old, 
vivid  and  vital  in  its  inspira- 
tion, that  we  would  reveal  to 
all  who  are  interested  in  the 
craft. 

Architects  who  are  sin- 
cerely striving  to  build  and 
enrich  enduring  structures 
will  find  this  spirit  strug- 
gling for  expression,  and  at 
times  bursting  forth  most 
radiantly  even  through  the 
many  discouraging  condi- 
tions so  evident  today. 

It  is  sure  to  prevail  even- 
tually among  us  as  it  has 
always  prevailed  among  lov- 
ers of  beauty  and  its  ex- 
pression in  inspired  handi- 
craft, throughout  the  cen- 
turies. 


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82 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


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HOUSE  OF  HOPE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 

LANCETS  OF  TRANSEPT  WINDOW  IN  GRISAILLE,  WITH  FIGURES  OF  SAINTS  IN  FULL  COLOR. 

(BIGELOW  MEMORIAL  WINDOW.) 

DESIGNED  AND  MADE  BY  CHARLES  J.  CONNICK 

This  window  is  remarkable  for  the  lustrous  silvery  tones  of  the  Grisaille,  which  are  interspersed  with 
bands  and  spots  of  jewel-like  color.  These  color  motives  are  taken  up  in  larger  masses 
by  the  figures  and  the  whole  affords  an  illumination  in  warm  and  silvery  lights. 


83 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  GOTHIC  APSE 

By  LEWIS  W.  SIMPSON,  F.R.I.B.A. 


HOW  often  one  finds  that  a modern 
gothic  church  has  been  spoilt  by 
an  apsidal  chancel,  yet  this  may 
have  been  the  express  wish  of  the 
client,  and  in  direct  opposition  to  the 
architect,  who  has  probably  condemned 
it  as  out-of-date,  undignified,  etc.,  in  com- 
parison with  a rectangular  treatment ! Of 
course  in  the  case  of  a cathedral,  condi- 
tions are  different  as  the  apse  has 
an  ambulatory  arcade,  triforium  and 
clerestory. 

In  this  article  I do  not  advocate  the  apse 
for  a small  church,  I merely  call  atten- 
tion to  the  possibility  of  its  better  treat- 
ment, and  mention  some  interesting  ex- 
amples in  England. 

Truly  it  is  old-fashioned,  and  in  the 
present  day  usually  very  tamely  treated, 
— a feeble  remind- 
er of  ancient  work. 

The  old  apse  has  a 
charm  which  the 
modern  one  does 
not  possess.  How- 
ever, having  an 
ancient  form,  it 
has  at  least  some 
claim  on  our  atten- 
tion. 

The  apse  was  used 
in  England  in  pre- 
conquest days,  and 
afterwards  still 
more  so,  under  the 
' influence  of  those 
who  had  known  it 
so  well  on  the  con- 
tinent ; while  the 
rectangular  chan- 
cel was  also  used 
at  the  same  early 
date,  but  not  to  so 
great  an  extent. 

Its  more  early 
and  Romanesque 
history  we  will  not 
now  consider,  nor 
the  numerous  an- 


cient gothic  examples  which  exist  in  coun- 
tries other  than  England. 

Those  who  have  seen  the  little  church 
of  Newhaven,  Sussex  (Fig.  1),  with  its 
semicircular  apse,  small  windows,  flat 
buttresses,  and  short  sturdy  tower,  must 
be  impressed  with  its  compactness  and 
quiet  dignity.  In  plan  (Fig.  2),  the  apse 
forms  the  sanctuary,  and  the  tower 
the  choir.  Old  Shoreham  Church  has  a 
rectangular  chancel  and  this  too — in  a 
different  way — has  its  own  charm.  Both 
churches  are  of  the  early  Norman  period 
and  in  the  same  country. 

Up  to  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century, 
all  the  choirs  of  the  greater  churches 
ended  in  a semicircular  apse,  with  the 
exception  of  Dover,  Southwell,  Sher- 
borne, and  Romsey.  At  Norwich  Cathe- 
dral (Fig.  3)  and 
St.  Bartholomew’s, 
Smithfield,  L o n - 
don,  we  find  good 
examples  in  the 
Norman  period. 
After  this  the  ten- 
dency was  to  build 
rectangular  east 
ends  to  choirs  and 
chapels,  in  fact, 
very  soon  the  apsi- 
dal plan  fell  into 
disuse,  both  in 
cathedral  and  in 
church,  though  we 
find  a few  exam- 
ples of  it  in  each 
period. 

At  Canterbury 
Cathedral  the 
choir  and  apse  are 
in  the  Early  Eng- 
lish style,  but  it  is 
a poor  reminder 
of  the  magnificent 
French  apse  of 
that  time.  At  Lin- 
coln Cathedral 
in  the  same  period. 


ALTAR  SCREEN  IN  AISLE  OF  HENRY  VII 
CHAPEL,  WESTMINSTER 


84 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


we  find  that  the  four  apsidal  chapels 
in  the  choir  transepts  are  semicircular  in 
plan.  Again,  at  Westminster  Abbey,  we 
have  the  four  Early  English  apsidal 


chapels  surrounding  that  of  Edward  the 
Confessor  (Fig.  4) ; it  is  interesting  to 
note  the  strong  French  influence  here. 


FIG.  2.  NEWHAVEN  CHURCH 


For  an  example  in  the  Decorated  Period 
we  can  take  the  apse  to  the  Lady  Chapel 
in  Wells  Cathedral  which  is  peculiar  in 
plan  (Fig.  5)  but  not  particularly  inter- 
esting. 


At  Gloucester  Cathedral  a wonderful 
transformation  took  place  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fourteenth  century,  when  the 
Norman  choir  and  presbytery  were  cased 
with  Perpendicular  work;  at  the  same 
time  the  Norman  apse  was  removed 
sufficiently  to  allow  a fifteen-light  east 
window  to  be  built,  which  extended  across 
the  entire  width  of  the  choir.  This  win- 
dow being  raised  on  the  walls  of  the  am- 
bulatory naturally  followed  the  polygonal 
plan  though  somewhat  flattened,  and  is  of 
more  than  usual  interest  and  beauty. 

We  have  another  example  in  all  the 
glory  of  the  Perpendicular  style  at  Henry 
VIPs  Chapel,  Westminster  Abbey.  Here 
we  no  longer  find  the  acutely  pointed  roof 
which  is  a feature  in  the  earlier  work, 
but  the  prevailing  flat  one  which  is  not 


VIEW  SHOWING  DEFECT  IN  ORDINARY  APSE. 
THE  CENTRAL  WINDOW  LOOKS  LOWER 
THAN  THOSE  ON  EITHER  SIDE 


visible  above  the  parapet.  The  plan  is 
of  great  interest,  for  in  earlier  times  the 
chapels  radiated  from  the  apse — as  in  Fig. 
4 — and  were  built  outside  the  ambula- 
tory; here,  however,  the  five  radiating 
chapels  are  built  inside  what  would 
otherwise  have  been  the  ambulatory.  The 
aisles  and  chapels  are  lighted  by  large  bay 
windows  which  have  two  distinct  forms 
in  plan,  and  it  may  be  that  the  apsidal 
form  generally — and  also  the  plan  of  these 
windows — suggested  the  bay  windows  so 
often  found  at  this  date  in  the  great  coun- 
try halls  and  manors, — such  as  South 
Petherton  Manor  House,  the  Deanery  at 


85 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Wells  (Fig.  7),  Crosby  Hall,  London 
(Fig.  8),  and  others;  whilst  the  influence 
of  Henry  VH’s  Chapel  is  even  more 
strongly  marked  in  the  bay  windows  at 
Hengrave  Hall,  and  Thornby  Castle.  Figs. 
9 and  10  show  the  plans  of  windows  in 
this  last  building  which  should  be  com- 
pared with  the  bays  at  Henry  VH’s 
Chapel  shown  by  Figs.  11  and  12. 

The  treatment  of  the  walls  in  this 
famous  chapel  is  very  effective,  especially 
the  stone  altar  screens  at  the  ends  of  the 
two  aisles  which  are  suggestive  for  mod- 
ern work. 

In  St.  George’s  Chapel,  Windsor  (Fig. 
13),  the  interior  of  which  is  a fine  example 
of  Perpendicular  work,  we  find  apsidal 
transepts  as  well  as  chapels,  and  this 
is  in  itself  an  uncommon  feature. 

How  is  it  that  the  great  example  at 
Westminster,  the  baptistry  at  Canterbury 


FIG.  3.  NORWICH  CATHEDRAL 

Cathedral  of  the  same  period,  and  the 
wonderful  bay  of  the  Palais  de  Justice, 
Rouen,  have  not  inspired  modern  archi- 
tects to  design  more  apses  in  the  Perpen- 
dicular style  which  are  really  worth  look- 
ing at? 

As  to  the  modern  apse,  one  of  the  most 
successful  examples  I know  of  is  at  the 
College  Chapel  of  St.  Nicholas,  Lancing, 
Sussex,  designed  by  Mr.  B.  Ingelow,  of 
London,  who  spent  some  time  studying 
the  French  cathedrals  beforehand.  It  is 
in  the  late  Early  English  style,  with  a 
strong  French  influence,  and  the  whole 
structure  forms  a really  fine  and  impos- 
ing piece  of  work.  The  apse  (Fig.  14) 
is  flanked  on  each  side  by  a tower,  and 
these  towers  form  the  chief  part  of  a 
wonderful  whole.  They  do  not  rise 


higher  than  the  parapet  and  so  become 
part  of  the  apsidal  composition,  breaking 
the  long  continuous  sky-line,  which  is 
usually  so  uninteresting.  Then  again  the 
buttresses  have  been  most  carefully  de- 
signed, the  architect  evidently  realizing 
how — in  this  high  building — the 
sky  would  show  up  their  outline. 

Having  spoken  of  the  lofty  apse, 
with  its  triforium  and  clerestory, 
let  us  now  consider 
the  low  apse  with 


FIG.  4 


CHAPELS  OF  EDWARD  THE  CONFESSOR  AND 
HENRY  VII,  WESTMINSTER 


only  one  tier  of  windows, — the  ordi- 
nary church  apse,  semi-octagonal  in  plan. 
Its  proportions  are  naturally  lacking  in 
the  dignity  possessed  by  the  taller  ex- 
amples. Turning  our  attention  first  to 
the  inside  effect,  we  find  that — by  an 


optical  illusion — the  cornice  over  the 
central  window  looks  lower  than  that 
of  the  sides.  The  window  under  it 


86 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


] 

I 


( 


LECTERN  AND  PULPIT,  THE  SECOND  CHURCH  IN  BOSTON,  UNITARIAN 
MESSRS.  CRAM  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


is,  of  course,  affected  in  the  same 
way.  The  central  east  window  being 
the  most  important  should  be  the  high- 
est. The  proportions  of  the  apse  are 


FIG.  7.  THE  DEANERY,  WELLS 


generally  made  worse  by  the  roof  being 
stained  dark,  thus  cutting  the  height  into 
two  parts — as  it  were,  instead  of  utilizing 
the  roof — by  keeping  the  color  scheme  one 
with  the  walls — to  give  apparent  height. 


Of  course  this  last  effect  is  obtained  when 
the  roof  is  in  stone  as  well  as  the  walls. 
The  arrangement  also  of  the  rafters — all 
radiating  from  the  axis  of  the  apse — is 
unpleasant,  and  reminds  one  of  the  inside 


FIG.  9.  THORNBY  CASTLE 


of  a tent.  Again,  the  window  sills  being 
low,  the  reredos  must  be  low  also,  or  it 
will  block  out  a great  deal  of  the  central 
window,  and  in  these  days  the  tall  reredos 
is  in  favor.  But  it  is  interesting  to  note 
an  ancient  example  of  the  low  reredos 


which  is  to  be  found  at  Exeter  Cathedral 
in  the  Speke  and  Oldham  Chantries.  Here 
there  is  not  much  height,  the  east  win- 
dows are  low  down,  but  underneath  them 
are  very  fine  specimens  of  ancient  stone 
reredoses,  with  Perpendicular  tracery 
and  sculpture.  The  walls  of  these  chan- 
tries are  also  richly  traceried  so  that  the 
reredos,  walls,  and  screen  form  one  har- 
monious design.  But  this  is  quite  an  ex- 
ceptional piece  of  work. 

The  outside  effect  of  the  low  apse  is  as 
undignified  as  the  interior;  at 
the  eaves  level  there  is  a want  of 
crispness  in  the  line  espe- 
cially  if  there  be  no  para- 


FIG.  10.  THORNBY  CASTLE 

pet ; one  also  feels  the  want  of  a gable  at 
the  east  end  to  give  greater  height,— 
though  with  the  Norman  apse  one  is  quite 
content,  as  this  often  has  no  long  chancel 
attached,  while  the  modern  apse  is  spoilt 
by  the  necessary  and  longer  chancel. 

Now  I will  show  a way  in  which  these 
defects  can  be  avoided  and  leave  it  to 


others  to  make  such  improvements  as 
may  occur  to  them.  Some  years  ago  I 
was  asked  to  arrange  the  construction  of 
the  roof  timbers  for  a little  concrete 
church  in  one  of  the  Fiji  Islands;  some 


FIG.  12.  CHAPEL  OF  HENRY  THE  VII 


88 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


ALTAR  SCREEN  AND  BAY  WINDOW  IN  AISLE 
OF  HENRY  VII  CHAPEL^  WESTMINSTER 


planters  had  started  building  it  from  their 
own  designs,  and  when  about  eight  feet 
up  began  to  think  how  they  should  roof 
in  the  apse.  They  could  not  gather  the 
rafters  together  in  the  usual  way,  as  the 
angles  of  the  semi-octagonal  apse  were 


FIG.  13.  ST.  GEORGE’S  CHAPEL,  WECTMi-NSTEjl 


not  at  forty-five  degrees.  After  due  con- 
sideration I solved  this  problem  in — what 
I believe  to  be — a unique  manner,  and 
afterwards  enlarged  upon  it  when  build- 
ing a small  church  in  Wiltshire,  the  photo 
of  which  will  show  how  an  apsidal  plan 


can  form  the  foundation  for  an  effective 
and  dignified  structure.  The  ridge  of  the 
chancel  is  run  straight  through  to  a gable 


FIG.  14.  LANCING  CHAPEL 


on  the  eastern  face  of  the  apse;  the  roof 
over  the  northeast  and  southeast  faces 
is  hipped  back,  and  these  two  faces  have 


LANCING  COLLEGE 


89 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


A CHURCH  IN  WILTSHIRE 


windows  the  same  height  as  those  in  the 
sides  of  the  chancel,  but  the  eastern  face 
— having  a gable — is  able  to  have  three 


higher  windows,  without  sacrificing  the 
reredos  to  obtain  them.  Lofty  buttresses 
run  up  the  gable  which  is  surmounted  by 
a stone  cross.  This  latter  is  far  more 
effective  than  the  metal  one  usually  found 
on  the  ordinary  apse.  It  may  be  noticed 
in  Fig.  15  that  the  plan  is  not  part  of  a 
true  octagon;  the  eastern  face  being  the 
widest,  gives  more  room  in  the  sanctuary. 


I had  to  design  this  church  in  the  Early 
English  style  as  the  funds  were  extremely 
limited;  it  would  have  been  interesting  to 
have  built  it  in  the  Perpendicular  style, 
with  a large  east  window  in  place  of  the 
three  lancets. 


90 


Plates 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  1 


Copyright  by  Kimball  Studio. 

CHAPEL  OF  GROTON  SCHOOL,  GROTON,  MASS. 


MR.  HENRY  VAUGHAN,  ARCHITECT 


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Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  2 


LOOKING  EAST 


Copyright  by  Kimball  Studio 


CHAPEL  OF  GROTON  SCHOOL,  GROTON,  MASS 

MR.  HENRY  VAUGHAN,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  3 


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Part  I, 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  4 


Copyright  by  KimbaU  Studio. 

CHAPEL  OF  ST.  PAUL’S  SCHOOL,  CONCORD,  N.  H. 

MR.  HENRY  VAUGHAN,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  5 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  6 


GROTON  SCHOOL  AND  CHAPEL,  GROTON,  MASS. 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  7 


CHAPEL  OF  WESTERN  RESERVE  UNIVERSITY,  CLEVELAND,  0. 
MR.  HENRY  VAUGHAN,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  8 


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CHAPEL  OF  WESTERN  RESERVE  UNIVERSITY,  CLEVELAND,  0 
MR.  HENRY  VAUGHAN,  ARCHITECT 


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Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  9 


CHRIST  CHURCH,  NEW  HAVEN,  CONN. 


MR.  HENRY  VAUGHAN,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  10 


CHRIST  CHURCH,  NEW  HAVEN,  CONN 
MR.  HENRY  VAUGHAN,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  11 


Scale  of  Fecr 


SCALE  OF  rttT 

AT  TOP  — CHAPEL  OF  ST.  PAUL’S  SCHOOL,  CONCORD,  N.  H.  IN  CENTRE  — CHRIST 
CHURCH,  NEW  HAVEN,  CONN.  AT  FOOT— CHAPEL  OF  WESTERN  RESERVE  UNIVER- 
SITY, CLEVELAND,  O. 

MR.  HENRY  VAUGHAN,  ARCHITECT 

(For  Illustration  of  These  Churches  See  Preceding  Pages.) 


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Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  12 


BETHLEHEM  CHAPEL,  CATHEDRAL  OF  SS.  PETER  AND  PAUL, 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

MR.  HENRY  VAUGHAN,  ARCHITECT 


(For  Illustration  of  These  Churches  See  Preceding  Pages.) 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  13 


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ST.  IGNATIUS  CHURCH,  NEW  YORK  MR.  CHARLES  C.  HAIGHT,  architect 


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Part  I, 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  14 


ST.  IGNATIUS  CHURCH,  NEW  YORK 

MR.  CHARLES  C.  HAIGHT,  ARCHITECT 


BUFF  PRESSED  BRICK  AND  LIMESTONE,  DARK  PEWS  AND  ROOF-TIMBERS  ; ROOD-BEAM  INSTEAD  OF 
ROOD-  SCREEN  ; UPPER  CHOIR-GALLERY  TO  THE  LEFT  OF  CHANCEL 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  15 


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ST.  CORNELIUS  CHAPEL,  GOVERNOR’S  ISLAND,  NEW  YORK  HARBOR 
MR.  CHARLES  C.  HAIGHT,  ARCHITECT 


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ST.  CORNELIUS  CHAPEL,  GOVERNOR’S  ISLAND,  NEW  YORK  HARBOR 

THE  CHAPEL  OF  AN  IMPORTANT  UNITED  STATES  ARMY  POST— SMALL  CHAPEL  NORTH  OP  THE  CHOIR,  VESTRIES  ON  THE  RIGHT. 

MR.  CHARLES  C.  HAIGHT,  ARCHITECT 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  17 


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PROPOSED  PARISH  HOUSE,  CHURCH  OF  THE  HOLY  COMMUNION,  NEW  YORK 
MESSRS.  CHARLES  C.  HAIGHT  AND  GITHENS,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  18 


PROPOSED  PARISH  HOUSE,  CHURCH  OF  THE  HOLY  COMMUNION,  NEW  YORK 
MESSRS.  CHARLES  C.  HAIGHT  AND  GITHENS,  ARCHITECTS 

BUILDING  TO  HOUSE  THE  ENTIRE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  PARISH  : PLANNED  TO  MAKE  THE  MOST  OP  UNOBSTRUCTED  SOUTH 
AND  WEST  LIGHT,  AS  IT  WILL  BE  HEMMED  IN  BY  HIGH  BUILDINGS  TO  NORTH  AND  EAST. 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  19 


CHAPEL,  ST.  JOHN’S  SEMINARY,  BRIGHTON,  MASS 

MESSRS.  MAGINNIS,  WALSH  & SULLIVAN,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  20 


CHURCH  OF  OUR  LADY  OF  THE  PRESENTATION,  BRIGHTON,  MASS 
MESSRS.  MAGINNIS  & WALSH,  ARCHITECTS 


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FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  DANBURY,  CONN. 
MESSRS.  HOWELLS  & STOKES,  ARCHITECTS 

(See  Article:  The  Development  of  the  Meeting  House) 


Part  I, 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  22 


FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  DANBURY,  CONN, 
MESSRS.  HOWELLS  & STOKES,  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  23 


DETAIL  OF  ENTRANCE 

FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  DANBURY,  CONN. 

MESSRS.  HOWELLS  & STOKES,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  24 


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FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  DANBURY,  CONN. 
MESSRS.  HOWELLS  & STOKES,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  25 


DETAIL  OF  SCREEN  AT  END  OF  BALCONY 

FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  DANBURY,  CONN. 

MESSRS.  HOWELLS  & STOKES,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  26 


THE  PULPIT 

FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  DANBURY,  CONN. 

MESSRS.  HOWELLS  & STOKES,  ARCHITECTS 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  27 


FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  DANBURY,  CONN. 
MESSRS.  HOWELLS  & STOKES,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  L AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  28 


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FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  DANBURY,  CONN. 
MESSRS.  HOWELLS  & STOKES,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  29 


H£'EEP3ZSriQHL- 

riRST^  CONGREGATIONAL^  OIYRCH 

• or  - THE  * FIRST  ■ ECCLESIASTICAL  * SOCIETY* 
or  DANBVRY-CONN- 


FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  DANBURY,  CONN, 
MESSRS.  HOWELLS  & STOKES,  ARCHITECTS 


FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  DANBURY,  CONN. 
MESSRS.  HOWELLS  & STOKES,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I, 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  31 


©_^ 

FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  DANBURY,  CONN. 
MESSRS.  HOWELLS  & STOKES,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  32 


ST.  MARK’S  CHURCH,  FRANKFORD,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA 
MESSRS.  WATSON  & HUCKEL,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  33 


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ST.  MARK’S  CHURCH,  FRANKFORD,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA 
MESSRS.  WATSON  & HUCKEL,  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  34 


ST.  MARK’S  CHURCH,  FRANKFORD,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 
MESSRS.  WATSON  & HUCKEL,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  35 


ST.  MARK’S  CHURCH,  FRANKFORD,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 
MESSRS.  WATSON  & HUCKEL,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  L AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  36 


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WILLIAM  C.  HAYS,  ARCHITECT. 


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MR.  WILLIAM  C.  HAYS,  ARCHITECT. 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  39 


FIRST  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 
MR.  WILLIAM  C.  HAYS,  ARCHITECT. 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  40 


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Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  41 


UNIVERSALIST  CHURCH,  WATERTOWN,  N.  Y. 

MR.  HORACE  F.  UPJOHN,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  42 


DA5EnE.AT  PLA/H 

UNIVERSALIST  CHURCH,  WATERTOWN,  N.  Y. 
MR.  HORACE  F.  UPJOHN,  ARCHITECT 


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Part  I. 


Plate  43 


AMERICAN 


CHURCHES 


CHURCH  OF  THE  IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION,  WEST  SPRINGFIELD,  MASS. 
MR.  JOHN  WILLIAM  DONOHOE,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  44 


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CHURCH  OF  THE  IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION,  WEST  SPRINGFIELD,  MASS 

MR.  JOHN  WILLIAM  DONOHOE,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  45 


CHURCH  OF  THE  IMMACULATE  HEART  OF  MARY,  WINCHENDON,  MASS. 
MR.  JOHN  WILLIAM  DONOHOE,  ARCHITECT 


PART  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  46 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  47 


CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  FLATBUSH,  NEW  YORK 

MESSRS.  ALLEN  & COLLENS,  ARCHITECTS;  MR.  LOUIS  E.  JALLADE,  ASSOCIATE 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  48 


CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  FLATBUSH,  NEW  YORK 
MESSRS.  ALLEN  & COLLENS,  ARCHITECTS;  MR.  LOUIS  E.  JALLADE,  ASSOCIATE 


4 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  49 


FIRST  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST  SCIENTIST,  LOS  ANGELES,  CAL. 
MR.  ELMER  GREY,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  50 


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Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  51 


DETAIL  OF  LOGGIA 

FIRST  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST  SCIENTIST,  LOS  ANGELES,  CAL. 
MR.  ELMER  GREY,  ARCHITECT 


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Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  52 


CHURCH  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  SCIENCE  SOCIETY,  MILWAUKEE,  WIS 

MR.  ELMER  GREY,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  53 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  54 


ELMER  GREY,  ARCHITECT 


AULE 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  55 


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Cpou/vp  /Zoo£>  P>A/B/r 


FIRST  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST  SCIENTIST,  LONG  BEACH,  CAL. 

MR.  ELMER  GREY,  ARCHITECT 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  57 


MESSRS.  NELSON  & VAN  WAGENEN,  ARCHITECTS 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  58 


BETHANY  MEMORIAL  CHURCH,  SIXTY-SEVENTH  ST.  AND  FIRST  AVE.,  NEW  YORK 

MESSRS.  NELSON  & VAN  WAGENEN,  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  59 


4 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  60 


"TttnaB  • FtoOB  ”TRlan  • 

BETHANY  MEMORIAL  CHURCH,  SIXTY-SEVENTH 
STREET  AND  FIRST  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK 

MESSRS.  NELSON  & VAN  WAGENEN,  ARCHITECTS 


• !>cfiLE  i-Jmt-EijurtLj 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  61 


BETHANY  MEMORIAL  CHURCH 
SIXTY-SEVENTH  STREET 
AND  FIRST  AVENUE 
NEW  YORK 


MESSRS.  NELSON  & VAN 
WAGENEN,  ARCHITECTS 


T]EAI^3VE123r-:!^CTlon-T!rtROIUGTl-CnUlBCri-tlOU3!U- 

COOKinG^EA5T“ 


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Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  62 


CHURCH  OF  ST.  JOHN  CANTIUS,  NORTHAMPTON,  MASS. 
MR.  JOHN  WILLIAM  DONOHOE,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  63 


CHURCH  OF  ST.  JOHN  CANTIUS,  NORTHAMPTON,  MASS. 
MR.  JOHN  WILLIAM  DONOHOE,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  64 


CHURCH  OF  ST.  JOHN  CANTIUS,  NORTHAMPTON,  MASS. 
MR.  JOHN  WILLIAM  DONOHOE,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  65 


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ST.  PAUL’S  CATHEDRAL,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I, 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  66 


ENTRANCE  TO  SOUTH  TRANSEPT 


ST.  PAUL’S  CATHEDRAL,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  67 


WESTERN  ENTRANCE 


ST.  PAUL’S  CATHEDRAL,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  68 


ST.  PAUL’S  CATHEDRAL,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  69 


ST.  PAUL’S  CATHEDRAL,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  70 


ST.  PAUL’S  CATHEDRAL,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  71 


ST.  PAUL’S  CATHEDRAL,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


ALTAR  AND  REREDOS 

ST.  PAUL’S  CATHEDRAL,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  72 


Part  I. 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  73 


ST.  PAUL’S  CATHEDRAL,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  74 


REREDOS,  ST.  PAUL’S  CATHEDRAL,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


Part  1 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  75 


bishop’s  throne 


ST.  PAUL’S  CATHEDRAL,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


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Parti.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  7€ 


ST.  STEPHEN’S  CHURCH,  COHASSET,  MASS. 
MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  77 


:ST- STEPHEN  ,5  CHUftCH 


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ST.  STEPHEN’S  CHURCH,  COHASSET,  MASS. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  78 


ST.  CATHERINE’S  CHURCH,  NORWOOD,  MASS. 
MESSRS.  MAGINNIS  & WALSH,  ARCHITECTS 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  79 


ST.  CATHERINE’S  CHURCH,  NORWOOD,  MASS. 
MESSRS.  MAGINNIS  & WALSH,  ARCHITECTS 


I 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  81 


I 


CHRIST  CHURCH,  NORFOLK,  VA. 
MESSRS.  WATSON  & HUCKEL,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  82 


CHRIST  CHURCH,  NORFOLK,  VA. 

MESSRS.  WATSON  & HUCKEL,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  83 


CHRIST  CHURCH,  NORFOLK,  VA. 
MESSRS.  WATSON  & HUCKEL,  ARCHITECTS 


VIEW  FROM  SOUTHEAST 


FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  RIVERSIDE,  CAL. 

MR.  MYRON  HUNT,  ARCHITECT 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  86 


TENTATIVE  SKETCH  AND  PHOTOGRAPHIC  VIEW  OF  SPIRE 

FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  RIVERSIDE,  CAL. 
MR.  MYRON  HUNT,  ARCHITECT 


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Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  87 


ARCADE 


LOOKING  TOWARD  PULPIT 

FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  RIVERSIDE,  CAL. 

MR.  MYRON  HUNT,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  88 


MYRON  HUNT,  ARCHITECT 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  89 


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COLLEGIATE  CHURCH,  FORT  WASHINGTON  AVE.,  NEW  YORK 
MESSRS.  NELSON  & VAN  WAGENEN,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  90 


FIRST  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  ST.  JOSEPH,  MO. 
MESSRS.  ECKEL  & BOSCHEN,  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  91 


FIRST  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  ST.  JOSEPH,  MO. 
MESSRS.  ECKEL  & BOSCHEN,  ARCHITECTS 


□ 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  92 


FIRST  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  ST.  JOSEPH,  MO 
MESSRS.  ECKEL  & BOSCHEN,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  93 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  94 


BAPTIST  CHURCH,  BROOKLINE,  MASS. 
MR.  J.  A.  SCHWEINFURTH,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  95 


BAPTIST  CHURCH,  BROOKLINE,  MASS 

MR.  J.  A.  SCHWEINFURTH,  ARCHITECT 


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Plate  96 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  97 


ALL  SAINTS  CHURCH,  ASHMONT,  DORCHESTER,  MASS. 
MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  99 


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MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  100 


LADY  CHAPEL 

ALL  SAINTS  CHURCH,  ASHMONT,  DORCHESTER,  MASS. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  101 


VAN  NEST  CHAPEL,  NEW  YORK,  N.  Y. 
MESSRS.  JAMES  E.  WARE  & SONS,  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  L AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  102 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  103 


ST.  JOSEPH’S  CHURCH,  DAYTON,  OHIO 

MESSRS.  MAGINNIS  & WALSH,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  104 


FIRST  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  OAKLAND,  CAL. 

MR.  WILLIAM  C.  HAYS,  ARCHITECT,  SAN  FRANCISCO;  MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON, 

CONSULTING  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  L AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  105 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  107 


FIRST  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  OAKLAND,  CAL. 

MR.  WILLIAM  C.  HAYS,  ARCHITECT,  SAN  FRANCISCO;  MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON 

CONSULTING  ARCHITECTS 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


FIRST  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  OAKLAND,  CAL. 

MR.  WILLIAM  C.  HAYS,  ARCHITECT,  SAN  FRANCISCO;  MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON,  CONSULTING  ARCHITECTS 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  109 


WOMEN’S  MEETING  ROOM,  FIRST  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  OAKLAND,  CAL. 

MR.  WILLIAM  C.  HAYS,  ARCHITECT,  SAN  FRANCISCO 
MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON.  CONSULTING  ARCHITECTS 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  110 


FIRST  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  OAKLAND,  CAL. 

MR.  WILLIAM  C.  HAYS,  ARCHITECT,  SAN  FRANCISCO;  MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON,  CONSULTING  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  111 


FIRST  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  OAKLAND,  CAL. 

MR.  WILLIAM  C.  HAYS,  ARCHITECT,  SAN  FRANCISCO;  MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON 

CONSULTING  ARCHITECTS 


FIRST  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  OAKLAND,  CAL. 

MR.  WILLIAM  C.  HAYS,  ARCHITECT,  SAN  FRANCISCO;  MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON, 

CONSULTING  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  113 


FIRST  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST  SCIENTIST,  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 

MR.  EDGAR  A.  MATHEWS,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  114 


FIRST  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST  SCIENTIST,  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL, 
MR.  EDGAR  A.  MATHEWS,  ARCHITECT 


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Plate  115 


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MR.  EDGAR  A.  MATHEWS,  ARCHITECT 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  116 


FIRST  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST  SCIENTIST,  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 

MR.  EDGAR  A.  MATHEWS,  ARCHITECT 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  117 


LOOKING  TOWARDS  ENTRANCE 


FIRST  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST  SCIENTIST,  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 

MR.  EDGAR  A.  MATHEWS,  ARCHITECT 


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Part  L AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  118 


FIRST  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST  SCIENTIST,  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 
MR.  EDGAR  A.  MATHEWS,  ARCHITECT 


4 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  119 


CHURCH  OF  OUR  LADY  OF  MT.  CARMEL,  SPRINGFIELD,  MASS. 

MR.  JOHN  WILLIAM  DONOHOE,  ARCHITECT 


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Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  120 


RESTORATION  OF  THE  ASYLUM  HILL  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  HARTFORD,  CONN. 

MESSRS.  ALLEN  & COLLENS,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  121 


CHANCEL,  CHAPEL  OF  UNION  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY,  NEW  YORK 
MESSRS.  ALLEN  & COLLENS,  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  122 


THE  SKINNER  MEMORIAL  CHAPEL,  HOLYOKE,  MASS. 
MESSRS.  ALLEN  & COLLENS,  ARCHITECTS 


1 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  123 


THE  CHANCEL 


THE  SKINNER  MEMORIAL  CHAPEL,  HOLYOKE,  MASS, 
MESSRS.  ALLEN  & COLLENS,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  124 


UNITARIAN  CHURCH,  WEST  NEWTON,  MASS. 
MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  125 


UNITARIAN  CHURCH,  WEST  NEWTON,  MASS. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  126 


Part  L 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  127 


ALTAR  AND  REREDOS  FOR  ST.  VINCENT’S  CHURCH,  SOUTH  BOSTON,  MASS. 


MESSRS.  MAGINNIS,  WALSH  & SULLIVAN,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  128 


SIDE  ALTAIC  AAAlC-dLE^ 

3A.NT  VINCE  NT'S  1 S°  I^OSTOK 


MESSRS.  MAGINNIS,  WALSH  & SULLIVAN, 
ARCHITECTS 


CALVARY  CHURCH,  PITTSBURGH,  PA. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


Plate  129 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  130 


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CALVARY  CHURCH,  PITTSBURGH,  PA. 


MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


Parti.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  131 


HIGH  ALTAR  AND  REREDOS,  CALVARY  CHURCH,  PITTSBURGH,  PA. 
MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  132 


ROOD  SCREEN,  CALVARY  CHURCH,  PITTSBURGH,  PA. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  133 


MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


ST.  JOHN’S  CHURCH,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA 
MESSRS.  WATSON  & HUCKEL,  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I, 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  135 


ST.  JOHN’S  CHURCH,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 
MESSRS.  WATSON  & HUCKEL,  ARCHITECTS 


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AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  136 


CHURCH  OF  THE  EPIPHANY,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA 
MESSRS.  WATSON  & HUCKEL,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  137 


PARISH  HOUSE  FOR  TRINITY  PARISH,  WATERTOWN, 
MESSRS.  WATSON  & HUCKEL,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  138 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  139 


ST.  JOHN’S  CHURCH,  NORTH  CAMBRIDGE,  MASS. 

MESSRS.  MAGINNIS,  WALSH  & SULLIVAN,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  140 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  141 


MESSRS.  MAGINNIS  & WALSH,  ARCHITECTS 


1 


Part  L AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  142 


ST.  AIDAN’S  CHURCH,  BROOKLINE,  MASS. 
MESSRS.  MAGINNIS  & WALSH,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  143 


EMMANUEL  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 
MESSRS.  C.  W.  BOLTON  & SON,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  L AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  144 


FIRST  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  LEWISTON,  PA. 
MESSRS.  C.  W.  BOLTON  & SON,  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  146 


MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


Part  L AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  147 


EUCLID  AVENUE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  CLEVELAND,  OHIO 
MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  148 


EUCLID  AVENUE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  CLEVELAND,  OHIO 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


■I 


Part  I, 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  149 


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EUCLID  AVENUE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  CLEVELAND,  OHIO 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  150 


SYNOD  HOUSE,  CATHEDRAL  OF  ST.  JOHN  THE  DIVINE,  NEW  YORK 
MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


UL-jJ- 


Plate  151 


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SYNOD  HOUSE,  CATHEDRAL  OF  ST.  JOHN  THE  DIVINE,  NEW  YORK 
MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  152 


SYNOD  HOUSE,  CATHEDRAL  OF  ST.  JOHN  THE  DIVINE,  NEW  YORK 
MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  153 


SYNOD  HOUSE,  CATHEDRAL  OF  ST.  JOHN  THE  DIVINE,  NEW  YORK 
MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  154 


SYNOD  HOUSE,  CATHEDRAL  OF  ST.  JOHN  THE  DIVINE,  NEW  YORK 
MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I, 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  155 


SYNOD  HOUSE,  CATHEDRAL  OF  ST.  JOHN  THE  DIVINE,  NEW  YORK 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON  (BOSTON  OFFICE),  ARCHITECTS 


Parti.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  156 


RICHARDSON  MEMORIAL  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 
MESSRS.  CHARLES  W.  BOLTON  & SON,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  157 


EA^mtNTriXDBPlAN 


Part  I, 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  158 


RICHARDSON  MEMORIAL  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA, 
MESSRS.  CHARLES  W.  BOLTON  & SON,  ARCHITECTS 


PART  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  159 


CHANCEL  TOWER  ENTRANCE 

RICHARDSON  MEMORIAL  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 
MESSRS.  CHARLES  W.  BOLTON  & SON,  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  160 


FLAGLER  MEMORIAL  CHURCH,  ST.  AUGUSTINE,  FLA. 
MESSRS.  CARRERE  & HASTINGS,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  161 


VIEW  FROM  SOUTHWEST 

PROPOSED  DESIGN  FOR  THE  COMPLETION  OF  THE  CATHEDRAL  OF 
ST.  JOHN  THE  DIVINE,  NEW  YORK 
RALPH  ADAMS  CRAM,  CONSULTING  ARCHITECT 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  162 


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PART  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  164 


THIRD  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  CAMBRIDGE,  MASS. 
MESSRS.  NEWHALL  & BLEVINS,  ARCHITECTS 


PART  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  165 


Part  L AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  166 


FIRST  CHURCH,  CHESTNUT  HILL,  MASS. 
MR.  J.  LOVELL  LITTLE,  JR.,  ARCHITECT 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  167 


MR.  J.  LOVELL  LITTLE,  JR.,  ARCHITECT 


PART  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  168 


♦ 


SECOND  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  LYNN,  MASS. 

MESSRS.  NELSON  & VAN  WAGENEN  AND  MR.  GEORGE  H.  BREED,  ASSOCIATE  ARCHITECTS 


part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  169 


i 


SECOND  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  LYNN,  MASS. 

MESSRS.  NELSON  & VAN  WAGENEN  AND  MR.  GEORGE  H.  BREED,  ASSOCIATE  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  170 


SECOND  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH,  LYNN,  MASS. 

MESSRS.  NELSON  & VAN  WAGENEN  AND  MR.  GEORGE  H.  BREED,  ASSOCIATE  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  171 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  172 


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PART  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  173 


TRINITY  CHURCH,  ASBURY  PARK,  N. 
MR.  CLARENCE  W.  BRAZER,  ARCHITECT 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  174 


TRINITY  CHURCH,  ASBURY  PARK,  N. 
MR.  CLARENCE  W.  BRAZER,  ARCHITECT 


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Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  176 


MESSRS.  BRAZER  & ROBB,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  177 


THE  SECOND  CHURCH  IN  BOSTON,  UNITARIAN 
MESSRS.  CRAM  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


THE  SECOND  CHURCH  IN  BOSTON,  UNITARIAN 
MESSRS.  CRAM  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  178 


Part  I. 


i 


i 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  179 


MESSRS.  CRAM  & FERGUSON, 
ARCHITECTS 


Part  L AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  180 


MESSRS.  CRAM  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  181 


THE  SECOND  CHURCH  IN  BOSTON,  UNITARIAN 
MESSRS.  CRAM  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


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Part  I 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  182 


THE  SECOND  CHURCH  IN  BOSTON,  UNITARLUN 
MESSRS.  CRAM  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


4 


1 


Plate  183 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


THE  SECOND  CHURCH  IN  BOSTON,  UNITARIAN 
MESSRS.  CRAM  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


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THE  SECOND  CHURCH  IN  BOSTON,  UNITARIAN 
MESSRS.  CRAM  & FERGUSON,  ARCHITECTS 


Part  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  185 


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THE  CHANCEL  FROM  THE  NAVE 

THE  HOUSE  OF  HOPE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,.  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON,  (BOSTON  OFFICE)  ARCHITECTS. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  186 


\\ 

Part  I. 


PART  I.  AMERICAN  CHURCHES  Plate  187 


THE  HOUSE  OF  HOPE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 
MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON,  (BOSTON  OFFICE)  ARCHITECTS. 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Plate  188 


EAST  SIDE  OF  NAVE 

THE  HOUSE  OF  HOPE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCPI,  ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 

MESSRS.  CRAM,  GOODHUE  & FERGUSON,  (BOSTON  OFFICE)  ARCHITECTS. 


INDEX 


TEXT 


Acoustical  Considerations  in  Church 
Architecture. 

By  Wallace  C.  Sabine 68 

Apse,  Gothic,  Development  of  the. 

By  Lewis  W.  Simpson,  F.R.I.B.A 84 

Church  Architecture,  and  Medieval  Re- 
finements. 

By  William  H.  Goodyear,  M.A 1 

Church  Fitments,  Homely  Remarks  on. 

By  Robert  Ellis  Jones,  S.T.D.,  Etc.  . . 35 


Church  Illumination,  Modern  Methods 


OF. 

By  F.  A.  Pattison,  A.I.E.E 41 

Church  Ventilation. 

By  D.  D.  Kimball 19 

Meeting  House,  Development  of 11 


Organ,  from  Architect’s  Standpoint. 

By  Arthur  Wheaton  Congdon,  A. A. LA.  49 

Stained  and  Painted  Glass. 

By  George  Herbertson  Charles 67 


PLATES 

The  figures  refer  to  plate  numbers  except  where  TEXT  is  stated 


Allen  & Collens. 

Asylum  Hill  Congregational  Church, 

Hartford,  Conn 720 

Union  Theological  Seminary,  N.  Y. . . . 121 
Skinner  Memorial,  Holyoke,  Mass . 122-123 
Congregational,  Flatbush,  L.  L,  N.  Y.  .47-48 

Bolton,  C.  W.,  & Son. 

Emanuel  Presbyterian,  Philadelphia . . 143 
First  Presbyterian,  Lewiston,  Pa. . 144-145 
Richardson  Memorial,  Philadelphia. 156-159 

Brazer,  Clarence  W. 

Trinity,  Asbury  Park,  N.  J 172-174 

Brazer  & Robb. 

St.  James,  Long  Branch,  N.  J 175-176 

Carrere  & Hastings. 

Flagler  Memorial,  St.  Augustine,  Fla . . 160 


Casey,  Edw.  Pearce  & Sneden,  A.  Durant. 
Second  Reformed,  Hackensack,  N.  J. . . 93 

Cram,  Ralph  Adams. 

Cathedral  St.  John  the  Divine,  N.  Y 

161-163 

Cram  & Ferguson. 

Second  Church  in  Boston,  Unitarian 

175-184 

Cram,  Goodhue  & Ferguson. 

Unitarian  Church,  W.  Newton,  Mass 


124-126 

Calvary,  Pittsburgh 129-133 

Euclid  Ave.,  Cleveland,  0 146-149 

Synod  House,  New  York 150-155 

House  of  Hope,  St.  Paul,  Minn.  . . .185-188 
St.  Paul’s  Cathedral,  Detroit,  Mich..  .65-75 
St.  Stephen’s,  Cohasset,  Mass 76-77 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


All  Saints,  Ashmont,  Dorchester,  Mass. 

97-100 

St.  Thomas’s,  New  York Text  51 

South  Church,  New  York Text  53 

First  Baptist,  Pittsburgh Text  55 

Chapel  of  Intercession,  New  York.  Text  57 

Donohoe,  John  William. 

Our  Lady  of  Mt.  Carmel,  Springfield, 

Mass 119 

Immaculate  Conception,  Springfield, 

Mass 43-44-46 

Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary,  Winchen- 

don.  Mass 45-46 

St.  John  Cantius,  Northampton,  Mass. 

62-65 

Dow,  Joy  Wheeler. 

Unitarian,  Summit,  N.  J Text  11-12 


Maginnis  & Walsh. 

St.  Mary’s  Cathedral,  Boston,  Mass . . . 138 


St.  Aidan’s,  Brookline,  Mass 141-142 

St.  Catherine’s,  Norwood,  Mass 78-79 

St.  Joseph’s,  Dayton,  0 103 

Maginnis,  Walsh  & Sullivan. 

St.  Vincent’s,  So.  Boston,  Mass ....  127-128 
St.  John’s,  No.  Cambridge,  Mass..  139-140 

Chapel,  St.  John’s,  Brighton,  Mass 19 

Our  Lady  of  Presentation,  Brighton, 

Mass 20 

Sacred  Heart,  Manchester,  Mass 80 

St.  Catherine’s,  Somerville,  Mass 102 

Nelson  &,  Van  Wagenen. 

Bethany  Memorial,  New  York 56-61 

Collegiate  Church,  New  York 89 


Eckel  & Boschen. 

First  Presbyterian,  St.  Joseph,  Mo. . . 90-92 


Green,  Ernest. 

Congregational,  Old  Lyme,  Conn 

Text  13-16 


Grey,  Elmer. 

First  Church  of  Christ  Scientist,  Los 


Angeles 49  to  51 

Christian  Science,  Milwaukee,  Wis. . . 52-53 
First  Church  of  Christ  Scientist,  Long 
Beach,  Cal 54-55 

Haight,  Charles  C. 

St.  Ignatius,  New  York 13-14 

St.  Cornelius,  New  York 15-16 

Parish  House,  Holy  Communion,  New 
York  17-18 


Hays,  Wm.  C. 

First  Presbyterian,  Oakland,  Cal 

Plates  104  to  112 
First  Presbyterian,  San  Francisco,  Cal. . . . 

37  to  40 


Howells  & Stokes. 

First  Congregational,  Danbury,  Conn. . . . 

21  to  31 


Hunt,  Myron. 

First  Congregational,  Riverside,  Cal 

84-88 

Little,  J.  Lovell,  Jr. 

First  Church,  Chestnut  Hill,  Mass . 166-167 

Mathews,  Edgar  A. 

First  Church  of  Christ  Scientist,  San 
Francisco,  Cal 113  to  118 


Nelson  & Van  Wagenen  and  George  H. 
Breed. 

Second  Congregational,  Lynn,  Mass 

168-171 

Newhall  &,  Blevins. 

Third  Congregational,  Cambridge, 
Mass 164-165 


SCHWEINFURTH,  A.  J. 

Baptist  Church,  Brookline,  Mass. . . . 94-95 
Memorial  Chapel,  Freeville,  N.  Y 96 


Renwick,  W.  W. 

Pulpit,  Grace  Church,  New  York. .Text  18 
Upjohn,  Horace  F. 

Universalist,  Watertown,  N.  Y 41-42 

Vaughan,  Henry. 

Chapel,  Groton  School,  Groton,  Mass. 

1-2,  6 

Chapel,  St.  Paul’s  School,  Concord,  N. 

H 3-5,  6-11 

Chapel,  Western  Reserve  University, 

Cleveland,  0 7-8-11 

Christ  Church,  New  Haven,  Conn. 9-10-11 

Ware  & Sons,  James  E. 

Van  Nest  Chapel,  New  York 101 

Watson  & Huckel. 

St.  John’s,  Philadelphia 134-135 

Church  of  the  Epiphany,  Philadelphia . 136 
Trinity  Parish  House,  Watertown,  N. 

Y 137 

St.  Mark’s,  Frankford,  Philadelphia, 

Pa 32  to  36 

Christ  Church,  Norfolk,  Va 81-83 


Part  I, 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


I 


J.W.  Steere  CBt,  Son 

Organ  Co. 

Springfield,  Mass. 

Established,  1867 


©r^ans 

Steere  Organs  are  unsurpassed  in  quality  of 
material  and  their  system  is  the  simplest 
known.  Accessibility  of  every  part  is  one  of 
their  strong  features  of  practical  value, 
minimizing  maintenance  cost.  As  to  their 
musical  qualities,  Steere  Organs  are  ad- 
mitted by  experts  to  have  more  character- 
istic tones,  a finer  balance  and  ensemble, 
and  more  perfect  diapasons — combining  in 
the  deep,  round,  churchly  tone  character- 
istic of  English  cathedral  organs. 


Two  notable  Steere 
Organs — to  the  left, 
Church  of  the  As- 
cension, New  York. 
Below,  Bailey  Hall, 
Cornell  University, 
Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


The  Auditorium  in 
the  Springfield, 
Mass.,  Municipal 
Group  of  Buildings, 
shown  above,  is 
equipped  with  a 
Steere  Organ. 


The  organ  is  a part  of  the  church — not  an 
afterthought.  It  should  be  incorporated  in 
the  original  idea — not  hastily  decided  upon 
at  a later  date.  The  drafting  of  organ  speci- 
fications is  an  art  in  which  we  have  special- 
ized for  many  years.  We  offer  our  service 
and  co-operation  to  architects,  freely. 


II 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Part  I. 


IR.VINC  “CASSON  > A-H-BAVENP0MX  C? 
IBOSTOM  ^ MEW  TOIAIIC 


G • n • L 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


III 


QE 


The  D’Ascenzo  Studios 


7 EAST  42ND  STREET 
NEW  YORK  CITY 


1608-10  LUDLOW  STREET 
PHILADELPHIA,  PENNA. 


MEMORIAL  WINDOWS 
MURAL  DECORATIONS 
TABLETS 

IN  BRONZE,  BRASS  AND  STONE 

LEADED  GLASS 
GLASS  MOSAIC 


Leaded  Glass  Panel.  One  of  a 
series  in  the  office  of  Bertram 
Grosvenor  Goodhue,  New  York 
City 


Notable  examples  of  our  productions  can  be  seen  in 
connection  with  the  work  of  ali  the  best  architects 


Ellz 


]Q 


■OTTO-HEINIGKE* 

•0-W-HElNlGKE- 

-OLIVER-P-SMITH' 


IV 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Part  I. 


Wi^t  (l^rgansi  m 

The  Cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  New  York  City 

St.  Thomas’  Church,  New  York  City 

Fifth  Avenue  Presbyterian  Church,  New  York  City 

Synod  Hall,  Cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  New  York  City 

Grace  Church,  New  York  City 

Columbia  College,  New  York  City 

College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  New  York  City 

Church  of  the  Holy  Communion,  New  York  City 

Holy  Trinity  Church,  New  York  City 

Fourth  Presbyterian  Church,  Chicago,  Illinois 

Grace  C hapel,  Williams  College,  Williamstown,  Mass. 

St.  James’  Church,  New  London,  Connecticut 

House  of  Hope,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota 

First  Church,  Springfield,  Mass. 

Skinner  Memorial  Chapel,  Holyoke,  Mass. 

King’s  Chapel,  Boston,  Mass. 

Appleton  Chapel,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Chapel  of  the  Nativity,  Cathedral  SS.  Peter  and  Paul, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Trinity  Cathedral,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

Were  Built  By 

tKlje  Crnegt  JR.  Skinner  Company 

Of  Boston, 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


V 


JOHNSON  SLATES 

While  the  highest  excellence  in  ecclesiastical  archi- 
tecture is  the  physical  expression  of  a spiritual 
ideal,  the  architect  cannot  ignore  utilitarian  ccm- 
siderations.  He  must  realize  his  harmony  of  line, 
form  and  color  in  materials  with  serviceable  qualities. 
For  church  roof  construction,  E.  J.  Johnsons 
Slate  satisfies  every  requirement  of  beauty  and 
utility.  In  richness,  softness  and  variety  of  tones, 
it  can  be  furnished  to  conform  with  any  color 
scheme.  And  to  the  artistic  merit  of  rmigh,  rugged 
appearance  are  added  superior  workmanship,  ex- 
ceptional uniformity,  extreme  durability,  unequaled 
weather-resisting  capacity,  color- fast  qualities — the 
sum  of  which  makes  a roof  of  lowest  ultimate  cost. 
The  specifying  of  E.  J.  Johnson  Slate  assures  a 
church  roof  of  maximum  beauty  and  dependability. 

E.  J.  Johnson,  38  Park  Row, 

New  York  City — Quarrier  of  Slates  in  unequaled  variety  and 
of  highest  quality,  for  every  purpose. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Part  I. 


Lectern,  Holy  Communion  ChurcK,  New  York  City 


WILLIAM  F.  ROSS  ^ COMPANY  | 

Manufacturers  of  HigK  Grade  Churck  Furniture,  Modeling,  Stone  g 

and  Wood  Carving  and  Plaster  Work  S 

Some  Work  That  We  Have  Done: 

CKancel  furniture  for  Calvary  ChurcK,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  = 

Chancel  furniture  for  St.  Paul  s Cathedral,  Detroit,  Mich.  ^ 

Interior  finish  for  Synod  Hall,  Cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  New  York  City  = 


WILLIAM  F.  ROSS  ^ COMPANY 

193-207  Bridge  Street,  East  Cambridge,  Mass. 

WILLIAM  F.  ROSS  I.  KIRCHMAYER  OTIS  T.  LOCKHART 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


VII 


ORGAN  IN  ST.  JAMES’S  PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

Four  Manuals.  Fifty-eight  Speaking  Stops.  Organ  divided.  Great,  Choir  and  part  of  Pedal  on  one  side  of 
Chancel;  Swell,  Solo,  and  part  of  Pedal  on  opposite  side.  Electric  action.  Movable  Keydesk. 

Built  by 

HUTCHINGS  ORGAN  COMPANY,  18  Tremont  St.,  Boston,"  Mass. 

Factory:  Waltham,  Mass.  New  York  Office:  156  ,5th  Avenue. 


VIII 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Part  I, 


Aisle  Window  in 
St.  Timothy’s  Church 
Catonsville,  Maryland 


Staineb  (3lass 

“This  medium  is  the  handmaid  of  archi- 
tecture, and  can  only  justify  itself  by  loyal 
service  of  its  mistress.  The  ideal  of  the 
stained-glass  artist  must  not  be  a picture 
made  transparent,  but  a window  made 
beautiful.” — Hugh  Arnold. 

Architects  who  are  confronted  with  prob- 
lems of  Church  lighting  will  be  interested 
to  see  photographs  of  my  recent  win- 
dows— some  of  them  are  in  the  form  of 
color  photographic  transparencies,  and 
are  veritable  windows  in  miniature. 

Charles  J.  Connick 

Nine  Harcourt  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 


Church 


Clocks 


For  nearly  three-quarters  of  a century  we 
have  been  makers  of  church  clocks,  co- 
operating with  architects  in  the  design  and 
installation  of  clock  and  chime  equipment 
for  every  ecclesiastical  requirement.  A 
notable  example  of  our  work  is  the  chim- 
ing clock  in  Old  Trinity,  New  York.  Our 
service,  based  on  75  years  of  experience, 
is  available  to  architects. 


E Howard  Clock  Company 

Boston  New  York  Chicago 


First  Church,  Old  Lyme, 
Conn.;  Ernest  Greene, 
Architect;  a dignified  ex- 
ample of  spire,  clock  and 
bell  design;  Howard  clock 
•used. 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


IX 


CATHEDRAL  OF  ST.  JOHN  THE  DIVINE,  NEW  YORK  CITY 
La  Farge  and  Morris,  Architects 

TILE  PAVEMENTS  IN  SYMBOLIC  DESIGNS 

The  durable  tile  pavements  in  the  Cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Divine  were  executed  by  us  from 
the  architects’  designs. 

Symbolism,  both  in  color  and  design,  helped  to  make  the  pavements  beautiful  and  interesting. 
Our  experience  in  church  work  enables  us  to  render  valuable  service,  either  in  preparing  spe- 
cial designs  or  in  interpreting  the  architect’s. 


GRUEBY  FAIENCE  AND  TILE  CO. 

BOSTON,  MASS. 


X 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Part  I. 


Jfiistin  ORe^in  Compjinv 

HARTFORD,  CONN. 

Architects,  Designers  & Builders 

AR/z  nnc 

of 

\/ Ijl  j\  12  ^ 

For 

CHURCHES  — HALLS  — THEATRES 

RESIDENCES 

The  following  are  some  of  our  installations 

Manuals 

Cathedral  of  All  Saints,  Albany,  N.  Y 

4 

Chapel  of  Intercession,  New  York  City 

4 

St.  James  Episcopal  Church,  Richmond,  Va 

4 

Panama-Pacific  Exposition,  San  Erancisco,  Cal 

4 

San  Diego  Exposition,  San  Diego,  Cal 

4 

City  Hall,  Portland,  Maine 

4 

Hotel  Astor,  New  York  Citv 

4 

Auditorium-Armory,  Atlanta,  Ga 

4 

Temple  Auditorium,  Los  Angeles,  Cal 

4 

Medinah  Temple,  Chicago,  111 

5 

Smith  College,  Northampton,  Mass 

4 

Baldwin-Wallace  College,  Berea,  Ohio 

4 

Etc.,  Etc.,  Etc. 

Catalogue  and  complete  literature,  in- 
cluding specifications  of  Panama-Pacific 
Exposition  organ,  sent  on  request. 

accompanping  illu-atration  a BauIteJj  Ceiling  of 

(guasitaPino  Construction 

Clji^  ig  an  erample  of  our  -special  terture  ftnippeti  Cile 
aJJapteti  to  epurep  tuorlt. 


anterior,  jf irst  JSaptist  Cljurci),  pittsburat- 


Cram,  (goobljuc  & JferauSon,  Slrcbitctts 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


iSoston 

60  S>tate  ^t. 


3^.  #uasta\Jtno  Co. 


i?etD  ^orb 

JfuUer  SSuilbina 


Cbc  Georgian  Period 

This  work  contains  nearly  two  hundred  pa^es  of  text,  illustrated  by 
some  500  cuts,  also  451  pa^es  of  plate  illustrations.  It  is  in  truth  a work  of 
superior  excellence  and  ^reat  usefulness.  In  portfolio,  12  parts,  $60.00. 


The  matter  illustrated  may  in  small  part  be  classified  thus : 

CHURCHES  Date 

King's  Chapel,  Boston,  Mass 1749 

Seventh-day  Baptist  Church,  Newport,  R.  I 1729 

Christ  Church,  Alexandria,  Va 1767 

Christ  Church,  Philadelphia,  Pa 1727 

St.  Paul's  Chapel,  New  York,  N.  Y 1764 

Old  South  Church,  Boston,  Mass 1729 

First  Church,  Hingham,  Mass 1681 

St.  John's  Chapel,  New  York,  N.  Y 1803 

First  Congregational  Church,  Canandaigua,  N.  Y 1812 

St,  Peter's  P.  E.  Church,  Philadelphia,  Pa 1758 

Gloria  Dei  Church,  Philadelphia,  Pa 1700 

and  others. 

PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  Date 

City  Hall,  N ew  York,  New  York 1803-12 

Old  State  House,  Boston,  Mass 1748 

Pennsylvania  Hospital,  Philadelphia,  Pa 1755 

Carpenter's  Hall,  Philadelphia,  Pa 1770 

Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia,  Pa 1729 

Faneuil  Hall,  Boston,  Mass 1741 

and  others. 

IMPORTANT  HOUSES  Date 

Fairbanks  House,  Dedham,  Mass 1636 

Roy  all  Mansion,  Dedham,  Mass 1737 

Philipse  Manor  House,  Yonkers,  New  York 1745 

Tudor  Place,  Georgetown,  D.  C 179- 

Mappa  House,  Trenton,  N.  Y 1809 

Woodlawn,  Va 1799 

Mount  Vernon,  Va 1743 

and  others. 

Incidentally  there  are  shown  special  measured  drawings  or  large  views  of  the  following 
features  and  details ; 

PORCHES  AND  DOORWAYS 67  subfects 

STAIRCASES 21  " 

MANTELPIECES 81  ” 

PULPITS 6 ” 

FANLIGHTS 60  " 


In  addition  to  the  subjects  enumerated  above,  there  is  a large  quantity  of  measured  and 
detailed  drawings  of  Cornices,  Ironwork,  Gateposts,  Windows,  Interior  Finish,  Ceiling  Dec- 
oration, Capitals,  etc.,  together  with  elevational  and  sectional  views  of  entire  buildings. 

The  Georgian  Period  is  published  complete  in  twelve  portfolios  at  a total  price  of  $60.00. 
A discount  of  5 per  cent,  is  allowed  for  cash  with  order,  making  the  net  price  $57.00. 

Write  us  for  sample  sheets  and  descriptive  circular — also  for  our  easy  payment  plan. 


BOOK  DEPARTMENT 

THE  AMERICAN  ARCHITECT  50  Union  Square,  New  York 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


XIII 


€cclesfiastical 

Jfurniture 

PEWS  CONFESSIONALS 

ALTARS  VESTMENT  CASES 

ALTAR  RAILS  PULPITS 

SCREENS  fonts 

To  this  work  we  bring  a mastery  of  the 
art  growing  out  of  forty-four  years  of 
experience.  The  products  of  our  shop 
are  original,  dignified,  and  distinctive. 
Our  execution  from  architects  designs  is 
characterized  by  a felicity  in  detail  and  a 
careful  attention  to  the  treatment  which 
has  merited  general  approval.  We  ask  an 
opportunity  to  submit  our  ideas,  and  to 
place  our  experience  at  the  architect’s 
service. 

Notable  examples  of  our  work 
are  found  in  most  of  the  churches 
designed  by  John  William  Dono- 
hue, Maginnis  and  Walsh,  and 
by  Matthew  Sullivan,  Architects. 

Thomas  and  Company,  Inc. 

I I 0 Exchange  Street 
Worcester,  Mass. 


•h 


•h 


Beautiful  €burcb  Ulinaows, 
Tigure  memorials,  in 
eudlisl)  or  German  JIntique 
or  Jimerican  Opalescent  at 
prices  witMn  tDe  react)  of 
every  cburcb. 

memorial  Cablets  in  mosaic 
Glass,  Old  Bronze  or  Tllum- 
inated  Brass. 

•i> 

Ddbting  Tixtures  of  ibe 
better  kind,  especially  tbe 
$emi--Tndirect  type. 

Gburci)  Decorating  in  har- 
mony With  tbe  architecture  in 
oils  or  water  color,  from  spe- 
cial designs. 

►j. 

Ghurch  Silver,  Communion 
Services  of  every  kind  as 
well  as  Crosses,  Oases, 
Candlesticks  and  Cecterns. 


1^ 


f Church  Bells,  Jlltars,  Benches,  and  in  fact  every-  \ 
i thing  that  lights  and  beautifies.  1 


ASKINS  ART 

STUDIOS  t 

• 

Corner  Court  and  I 
Cortland  Streets  ? 

Rochester,  N.  Y.  • | 

• 

Established  21  years.  d* 

• 

Send  all  data  for  designs  ? 
and  estimates  which  will  • 
be  cheerfully  forwarded.  \ 


XIV 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Part  I, 


SOME  SUGGESTIONS 

In  Architectural  Works 


FOR  SALE  BY 


THE  AMERICAN  ARCHITECT 


BULLOCK — Grinling  Gibbons  and  His  Compeers. 

The  Carvings  in  the  Church  of  St.  James,  Piccadilly, 
and  in  St.  Paul’s  Cathedral.  Finest  specimen  de- 
tails of  good  work  to  be  found  in  these  Churches. 
Architectural  Sculpture.  61  plates,  12  in.  x 16  in. 
In  portfolio,  $10.00.  Bound,  $11.00. 

DRAKE — A History  of  English  Glass  Painting. 

With  some  remarks  upon  the  Swiss  Glass  Miniatures 
of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  As  indi- 
cated by  its  title,  this  book  gives  a history  of  the  rise, 
fall  and  revival  of  glass  painting  in  England,  from  the 
thirteenth  to  the  nineteenth  century.  Attention 
is  also  given  to  the  secular  glass  paintings  of  the  Con- 
tinent, Swiss  and  Flemish,  subsequent  to  the  six- 
teenth century.  Size  in.  x 13J^  in.  Price  $12.50. 

GOODHUE — A Book  of  Architectural  and  Decora- 
tive Drawings. 

A sumptuous  volume  of  original  drawings  of  archi- 
tectural subjects,  decorative  designs,  printers’  de- 
vices, book-plates,  tentative  sketches,  details,  etc. 
With  a foreword  by  E.  Donald  Robb  and  an  article 
appreciative  of  the  work  by  Frank  Chouteau  Brown. 
One  of  the  most  important  publications  of  recent 
years  on  the  subjects  treated  and  one  that  presents 
the  highest  suggestive  value  to  architects  and  others 
engaged  in  the  Beaux-Arts.  The  work  covers  144 
pages  of  text  and  drawings,  size  12  in.  x 17  in.  Price, 
$9.00. 


A Study  of 


GRANGER— Charles  Pollen  McKim: 

His  Life  and  Work. 

This  is  a sympathetic  and  brilliant  appreciation  of 
the  achievements  of  one  of  the  most  successful  archi- 
tects of  his  age,  whose  work  through  the  last  quarter 
of  a century,  from  the  Boston  Public  Library  to  the 
great  Pennsylvania  Station,  stands  unique  and  un- 
rivalled. The  book  is  printed  with  wide  margins  on 
heavy  cameo  paper,  and  is  illustrated  with  more  than 
forty  full  page  reproductions  from  photographs  of 
McKim’s  most  successful  and  characteristic  work. 
The  binding  is  of  boards  in  old  blue,  with  cloth  back 
and  leather  label.  Illustrated.  Price  boxed,  $6.00. 

PLATT — Monograph  of  the  Work  of  Charles  A. 
Platt. 

This  is  a monumental  work  containing  a resume  of 
the  best  country  and  city  house  work  which  Mr. 
Platt  has  executed  from  the  beginning  of  his  career 
as  an  architect  until  the  present  time.  The  illustra- 
tions shown  consist  of  large  photographs  of  the 
Exteriors,  Interiors,  Gardens  and  Details,  the  floor 
plans  and  the  detail  and  full  size  working  drawings. 
Mr.  Platt  has  personally  executed  the  many  Garden 
Plans  appearing  in  this  publication.  Architects, 


Interior  Decorators,  Landscape  Designers  and  others 
who  are  interested  in  the  best  domestic  architecture 
will  welcome  this  work.  184  plates,  size  12  in.  x 16 
in.  Price,  $20.00. 

POLLEY — Domestic  Architecture,  Furniture  and 
Ornament  of  England  from  the  Fourteenth  to 
the  Eighteenth  Century. 

A studied  selection  of  the  best  examples  not  before 
published,  comprising  Exteriors,  showing  beautiful 
Landscape  and  Garden  Treatment,  Interiors,  Fur- 
niture and  Ornament.  This  is  a companion  to  the 
Ecclesiastical  Work,  Gothic  Architecture  and  Or- 
nament of  England  from  the  eleventh  to  the  six- 
teenth century,  by  the  same  author.  Complete  in  76 
large  plates,  photographic  and  measured  drawings. 
Size  14  in.  x 18  in.,  in  portfolio  volume.  A valuable 
book  of  reference.  Price,  $35.00. 

RICHARDSON — Monumental  Classic  Architecture 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  during  the  Eigh- 
teenth and  Nineteenth  Centuries. 

The  buildings  selected  for  illustration,  comprise 
nearly  every  type.  There  are  Churches,  Town 
Halls,  Assize  Courts,  Banks,  Clubs,  Government 
Buildings,  Railway  Stations,  Prisons,  Concert  Halls, 
Schools,  Institutions,  Bridges,  features  of  Town- 
planning,  and  other  details  of  vital  consideration. 
The  beautiful  collotype  and  half-tone  reproductions 
of  Exteriors  and  Interiors,  specially  photographed  for 
the  book  by  Mr.  E.  Dockree,  are  supplemented  by 
measured  and  rendered  drawings  of  the  more  impor- 
tant buildings,  especially  prepared  for  this  work,  and 
illustrations  of  buildings  in  London  and  elsewhere 
which  have  been  recently  demolished,  but  which 
formed  distinctive  landmarks  of  the  movement,  are 
included  in  order  to  complete  the  series.  The  text 
is  amplified  by  numerous  drawings  and  photographs. 
It  is  confidently  believed  that  the  present  work  will 
have  a widespread  influence  upon  the  development 
of  future  design,  not  only  for  the  sound  principles 
it  expounds,  but  for  the  accuracy  and  utility  of  the 
illustrations  depicting  this  scholarly  and  refined 
tradition.  Price,  $33.50. 

VALLANCE — The  Old  Colleges  of  Oxford. 

Their  Architectural  History  illustrated  and  described 
by  Aymer  Vallance.  Illustrated  by  50  beautiful 
Collotype  Plates,  finely  reproduced  from  photographs 
specially  taken  by  A.  E.  Walsham,  and  from  Paint- 
ings, Drawings,  and  Engravings;  together  with  232 
further  Illustrations  in  the  text,  the  whole  comprising 
Exterior  and  Interior  Views,  Ground  Plans,  and  Dec- 
orative Details  in  Stone,  Wood,  Metal,  Plaster,  and 
other  materials,  also  Illustrations  of  the  College 
Arms  and  Memorial  Brasses.  Small  folio,  handsomely 
bound  in  buckram,  gilt.  Price,  $35.00  net. 


Book  Department 

THE  AMERICAN  ARCHITECT 

50  Union  Square,  New  York 


Part  I. 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


XV 


Park  Ave.  Presby- 
terian Church,  New 
York.  Heated  and 
ventilated  with 
Kelsey  Generators 

Cram,  Goodhue  and 
Ferguson,  Architecls 

This  is  one  of  the 
finest  examples  of 
warm-air  mechanical 
systems,  where  a blower 
is  used  to  distribute  the 
air.  The  KELSEY  Warm 
Air  Generators,  four  in 
number,  are  brick  encased. 
There  is  a complete  change 
of  air  every  lo  minutes. 


job.  It  will  be 


NEW  YORK 
103-1  Park  Ave. 


The  rectory  adjoining  is  heated  independently  by  two 
Warm  Air  and  Hot  Water  Combination  KELSEYS. 

If  you  have  any  church  heating  to  do,  write  for  the  particulars  of  this 
helpful  to  you. 


CHICAGO 
2767  Lincoln  Ave. 


Interesting  Library  Additions 


MONOGRAPH  OF  “THE  WORK  OF 
McKIM,  MEAD  & WHITE” 

to  be  published  in  twelve  parts,  each  part  containing 
twenty  plates,  size  14  x 20  inches,  consisting  of  photo- 
gravures and  scale  detail  drawings.  This  work  is  being 
edited  and  prepared  by  Messrs.  McKim,  Mead  & White, 
and  when  complete  will  constitute  a complete  chrono- 
logical record  of  their  executed  work  from  1879  to 
1915.  Parts  I to  IV  are  now  ready  for  delivery.  Sub- 
scription orders  are  solicited.  Price,  per  part,  as  de- 
livered, $5.00. 

MIDDLETON— THE  EVOLUTION  OF 
ARCHITECTURAL  ORNAMENT 

This  work  is  a classification  of  architectural  ornament 
as  to  its  bases,  found  either  in  vegetable  or  animal 
forms  of  life,  or  in  straight  or  curved  lines.  It  traces 
Gothic  forms  almost  wholly  to  nature.  With  236 
illustrations.  Octavo.  Cloth.  Net  $5.00. 

SHUFFREY— THE  ENGLISH  FIREPLACE 

A History  of  the  Development  of  the  Chimney,  Chim- 
neypiece,  and  Firegrate,  with  their  Accessories,  from 
the  earliest  time  to  the  beginning  of  the  XIXth  Cen- 


tury. Measured  drawings  and  photographs.  The  works 
of  many  famous  architects  and  artists  are  presented, 
amongst  them  being  Hans  Holbein,  Huntingdon,  Smith- 
son,  Inigo  Jones,  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  Grinling  Gib- 
bons, etc.,  etc.  Price,  $16.80  net. 

FERRARI— ITALIAN  ART 

By  Giuliu  Ferrari.  A senes  of  volumes  illustrating 
the  use  of  various  materials  and  the  different  phases  of 
art  in  Italy.  Descriptive  text  in  Italian.  Bound  in  full 
cloth,  quarto  size. 

II  Legno — Woodwork  in  Italian  Art.  A collection  of 
277  plates  reproducing  upwards  of  451  designs  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  Renaissance  and  the  Barock  and  Neo 
Classic  periods.  One  volume,  quarto,  $8.40. 

II  Ferro — Iron  Work  in  Italian  Art.  A collection  of 
TOO  plates,  introducing  upwards  of  169  specimens  of 
iron  work  of  the  Middle  Ages,  Renaissance,  Barock 
and  Neo  Classic  periods.  One  volume,  quarto,  bound  in 
full  cloth,  $5.40. 

Lo  Stucco — Plastic  and  Stucco  Work  in  Italian  Art. 
205  plates  of  reproductions  illustrating  356  designs  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  Renaissance,  Barock  and  Neo  Classic 
periods,  also  of  the  Etrusco  Neo  Classic  period.  One 
volume,  quarto,  cloth,  $7.50. 


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50  UNION  SQUARE  NEW  YORK 

Ask  for  our  Book  Catalog 


XVI 


AMERICAN  CHURCHES 


Part  I. 


ANY  an  architect  counts  as  one  of  his  greatest  helps  his 
file  of  THE  AMERICAN  ARCHITECT.  Through- 
out his  practice  this  paper  has  been  coming  to  his  office 
weekly,  bringing  him  a record,  by  means  of  both  text 
and  illustrations,  of  the  current  architectural  development  in 
this  country,  and  incidentally  a less  comprehensive  one  of  both 
ancient  and  modern  work  abroad. 

Established  in  1 876,  THE  AMERICAN  ARCHITECT  is  the 
dean  of  the  American  architectural  press.  It  has  grown  as  the 
profession  it  serves  and  represents  has  grown  until,  at  the 
present  time,  over  nine  hundred  full-page  plate  illustrations  and 
more  than  one  thousand  text  pages  are  necessary  each  year  to 
properly  record  and  reflect  the  character  of  present  day  work. 

Beside  the  strictly  technical  information  printed,  there  is 
furnished  a large  amount  of  other  material — news  about  the 
work  of  various  architects  throughout  the  country  — brief 
items  about  new  building  products — reviews  of  architectural 
books,  etc. 

In  the  fifty-two  issues  of  each  year  an  architect  receives 
numerous  illustrations  and  text  articles  on  practically  every 
phase  of  his  work.  He  will  in  fact  find  THE  AMERICAN 
ARCHITECT  an  almost  indispensable  aid.  And  the  cost,  while 
higher  than  that  of  other  magazines,  is  so  low,  when  the  quality 
and  quantity  of  material  furnished  is  considered,  that  it  is  not  a 
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foreign  countries 


THE  AMEHCAN 

ARCHITECT 

50  UNION  SQUARE.  NEW  YORK 


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